What is the difference between a writer and a storyteller? Book "Introduction to Literary Studies"

The narrative in a work of art is not always told on behalf of the author.

Author- This a real man who lives in real world. It is he who thinks through his work from the beginning (sometimes from the epigraph, even from the numbering (Arabic or Roman) to the last point or ellipsis. It is he who develops the system of heroes, their portraits and relationships, it is he who divides the work into chapters. For him there is no " unnecessary” details - if there is a pot of balsam on the window in the stationmaster’s house, then that is exactly the flower the author needed.

Examples of works where the author himself is present are “Eugene Onegin” by A. Pushkin and “ Dead Souls» N. Gogol.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

NARRATOR AND STORYTELLER

Narrator- an author who tells through the mouth of a character. Narrator lives in each specific text - this is, for example, an old man and an old woman who lived near the blue sea. He is a direct participant in some events.

A narrator is always above the narrator, he tells the story in its entirety, being a participant in the events or a witness to the lives of the characters. Narrator - This is a character who is presented as a writer in a work, but at the same time he retains the characteristics of his speech and his thoughts.

The narrator is the one who wrote the story. It can be fictional or real (then the concept of author is introduced; that is, the author and the narrator coincide).
The narrator represents the writer in the work. The narrator is often called a “lyrical hero.” This is someone to whom the writer trusts his own assessment of events and characters. Or these points of view - the author-creator and the narrator - may be close.

To present and reveal his plan in its entirety, the author puts on different masks - including the narrator and storytellers. The last two are eyewitnesses of the events, the reader believes them. This gives rise to a feeling of authenticity of what is happening. It’s as if the author, on the stage – on the pages of the work – plays alone the many roles of the performance he created. That's why it's so interesting to be a writer!

WHO TELLS SILVIO'S STORY?
IN WHAT OTHER WORK DOES THE AUTHOR RESORT
FOR A SIMILAR RECEPTION?

Pushkin was traveling to Boldino as a groom. However, financial difficulties prevented the marriage. Neither Pushkin nor the bride's parents had excess money. Pushkin’s mood was also influenced by the cholera epidemic in Moscow, which did not allow him to travel from Boldino. It was during the Boldino autumn, among many other things, that “Belkin’s Tales” were written.

In fact, all the cycle was written by Pushkin, but the title and preface indicate another author, pseudo-author Ivan Petrovich Belkin, however, Belkin died and his stories were published a certain publisher A.P. It is also known that Belkin wrote every story according to the stories of several “persons”.

The series begins with a preface "From the publisher" written on behalf of someone A.P. Pushkinists believe that this is not Alexander Pushkin himself, since the style is not Pushkin’s at all, but somehow ornate, semi-clerical. Publisher was not personally acquainted with Belkin and therefore applied to the deceased author's neighbor behind biographical information about him. The letter from a neighbor, a certain Nenaradovsky landowner, is given in full in the preface.

Pushkin Belkina still presents to the reader as a writer. Belkin himself conveys the story to a certain narrator - Lieutenant Colonel I. L. P.(as stated in the footnote: (Note by A.S. Pushkin.)

The answer to the question: who tells the story of Silvio - opens up like a nesting doll:

Pushkin biographical(it is known that the poet himself once ate cherries during a duel, but did not shoot) →
Pushkin the author(as the creator of the story from concept to implementation) →
Publisher A.P. ( but not Alexander Sergeevich himself) →
Nenaradovsky landowner(neighbor of Belkin, who was deceased by that time) →
Belkin biographical(the neighbor spoke about it in detail, as best he could) →
Belkin-author ( wrote down the story Lieutenant Colonel I.L.P.) →
Narrator(an officer who knew both Silvio and the lucky count) →
Narrators = Heroes(Silvio, Count, “a man of about thirty-two, handsome”) .

The narration is told in the first person: the narrator participates in the action; it is to him, a young army officer, that Silvio confides the secret of the unfinished duel. Interestingly, the ending of her I.L.P. learns from the enemy Silvio. Thus, the narrator in the story also becomes the confidant of two characters, each of whom tells his own part of the story, which is given in the first person and in the past tense. Therefore, the story told seems reliable.

This is such a complex construction of a seemingly simple story.

“Belkin's Tales” is not just a fun Pushkin work with funny plots. People starting to play literary heroes, find themselves at the mercy of certain plot patterns and become not only funny and amusing, but also risk actually dying in a duel...” It turns out that these “Belkin’s Tales” are not so simple.

All other stories in the cycle are constructed in a similar way. Other works include the story “ Captain's daughter", which is written on behalf of a fictional character - Pyotr Grinev. He talks about himself.
Grinev is young, honest and fair - only from such a position can one appreciate the robber honor of Pugachev, recognized by the defenders of the state as an impostor, a “despicable rebel.”

Through the words of the narrator Grinev, the voice of the author, Pushkin, is heard. It is his irony that comes through in the story of Petrusha’s childhood and upbringing; it is Pushkin who speaks through the mouth of his hero about the meaninglessness and mercilessness of the Russian rebellion.

IN last chapter(“Court”) Grinev talks about the events that occurred during his imprisonment, from the words of his loved ones.

One can also recall Rudygo Panko, to whom Nikolai Gogol conveyed the story “ Enchanted place».

The chapter “ Maxim Maksimych" from " Hero of our time» M. Lermontov.

“His name was Vasily Yegorych Knyazev. He was thirty-nine years old. He worked as a projectionist in the village. He loved detectives and dogs. As a child I dreamed of being a spy."

Plot and plot literary work.

Elements of the plot. Composition of a literary work.

Real and intratextual reader of a literary work.

The language of a literary work.

Precision of words in the language of literature.

The language of literature and literary language.

No matter what components of a literary work we talk about, one way or another we understand that everything in a literary text happens at the will and with the participation of the author. In literary criticism, a certain scale has long been built, indicating the degree and nature of the author’s presence in a work: author, storyteller, narrator .

The author of a literary work, a writer in Russia has traditionally been perceived as a prophet, a messiah, who is called into this world to open people's eyes to the deep, hidden meaning human existence. Pushkin’s famous lines about this:

Arise, prophet, and see and listen,

Be fulfilled by my will,

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Burn the hearts of people with the verb.

Another poet already in the 20th century. came up with the formula: “A poet in Russia is more than a poet” (E.A. Yevtushenko). Intrinsic value artistic word, the meaning of the purpose and fate of the writer in Russia has indeed always been very high. It was believed that the author of a literary work is the one who is gifted with God's grace, the one of whom Russia is rightfully proud.

Author work of art- the person whose name is printed on the cover. Literary scholars call such an author real or biographical author, because this author has his own, very real biography and a body of written works. The writer's biography is recorded in his memoirs, in the memoirs of people who knew the writer.

Years later, the writer’s biography becomes the property of literary criticism, and scientific publications writer's biography, recreating details of the writer’s life and work. The most important material for writing a biography are scientific publications chronicles of the writer's life and work.

The literary genre of chronicling the life and work of a writer is a detailed, strictly documented chronicle, including everything reliably known facts household and creative biography writer, the stages of his work on works (from the inception of the idea to the final publications and reprints), information about lifetime translations into foreign languages, about performances and theatrical productions based on his texts, etc.

In addition to the real (biographical) author, literary scholars distinguish intratextual author- the one on whose behalf the story is being told. An intratextual author can be endowed with his own biographical history; he can be an observer or participant in the events depicted in the work. Characteristics and assessments of literary characters can be given by both a real (biographical) author and an intra-textual author.

IN lyrical work takes the place of the author lyrical hero, whose feelings and experiences constitute the content of a lyrical work. In dramatic works, the author is eliminated in appearance; he gives his voice primarily through stage directions. The characters in a dramatic work “act” independently, exchanging remarks and monologues.

IN epic work There are three main forms of intratextual authorial presence. The most common literary form is a third person narration. This form is so called because the author talks about the character in the third person: “Retired Major General Buldeev had a toothache. He rinsed his mouth with vodka, cognac, applied tobacco soot, opium, turpentine, kerosene to the sore tooth […] The doctor came. He picked his tooth and prescribed quinine, but that didn’t help either” (story by A.P. Chekhov “The Horse’s Name”).

Another form actively used by writers is first-person narration. Such an author is usually called narrator. He is a witness to the events he talks about. He sees events, records them, evaluates the characters, but does not interfere in the events, does not become a character in the narrative. Such a narrator can claim that he is familiar with the characters, sometimes even closely acquainted, but it also happens that he accidentally witnessed some incident, episode, fact. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time,” Maxim Maksimych is a good friend of Pechorin, who can tell him in detail. The narrator from “Notes of a Hunter” I.S. Turgenev is an eyewitness to the events that become the subject of his stories.

The third form is also a first-person narrative, but the author here transforms himself not just into a narrator, but into Storyteller(we use a capital letter to emphasize the role of the Narrator, equal to other characters). At the same time, the Narrator becomes not only a recorder of events, but also an active character in the narrative, a character like the others. It is customary to endow the narrator with an individual character, psychological characteristics, details of behavior, and special manners: “I thoughtfully traced the round, trembling shadow of the inkwell with a pen. The clock struck in the far room, and I, a dreamer, imagined that someone was knocking on the door, first quietly, then louder; knocked twelve times in a row and froze expectantly.

“Yes, I’m here, come in…” (story by V.V. Nabokov “Undead”).

Since the Narrator talks about other characters and himself, the main means of revealing his character is speech. Speech characteristics in this form of narration it becomes so dominant that the form of narration itself began to bear the name fantastic form, or tale

Using the tale form, writers strive to diversify the narrator’s speech and emphasize the features of his individual style. This is unhurried, with the active inclusion of words indicating folk etymology (small scope - instead of a microscope, Solid Earth Sea - instead of the Mediterranean) the tale of the famous Leskovsky left-hander, these are the tales of P.P. Bazhova.

Most often, the tale form is used in works where the Narrator’s speech becomes a way of his satirical presentation. This is the Narrator in “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” by N.V. Gogol. The tale form was highly valued by M.M. Zoshchenko, with the help of his speech manner, endows his funny ordinary Narrators with such qualities as lack of education, pettiness, lack of logic in words and actions, ignorance, stinginess: “Once I stand at the cinema and wait for one lady. Here, I must say, we liked one person. Such a rather interesting childless girl, an employee. Well, of course, love. Meetings. Different to that similar words. And even writing poems on a topic that has nothing to do with construction, something like this: “A bird is jumping on a branch, the sun is shining in the sky... Accept, dear, my greetings... And something like that, I don’t remember, - ta-ta- ta-ta... it hurts..." (story by M.M. Zoshchenko “A minor incident from his personal life”).

Thus, in the text we distinguish several levels of authorial presence. The author is the creator, the author is the one who leads the narrative, having complete knowledge about the events and characters, and, finally, the Storyteller in works of the fairy tale form. This is how the scale of authorial self-expression in a literary work, created in literary studies, arises: author - narrator - storyteller and above all Author - creator of a literary work.

Inventor, storyteller, narrator, storyteller, storyteller, narrator, reteller, anecdote teller, storyteller, fable teller Dictionary of Russian synonyms. narrator narrator (obsolete) Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M.:... ... Synonym dictionary

- [ask], narrator, husband. A person who tells something. The narrator fell silent. || A person who knows how to speak expressively and speak well. Gorbunov was a natural storyteller. || A person, a character in a work, on whose behalf the story is written... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

NARRATOR, huh, husband. The one who tells what n. Good r. (a person who knows how to tell an interesting story). The image of the narrator (in a tale in 2 meanings, in an artistic narration from someone else’s person: the image of the one on whose behalf the story is told). | wives... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

narrator- narrator. Pronounced [narrator]… Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian language

narrator- I. NARRATOR NARRATOR, narrator, storyteller, colloquial. reteller II. story … Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech

M. 1. The one who tells something. Ott. Someone who knows how to tell a good story. 2. A writer who masters the craft of storytelling. 3. An artist performing with oral stories. Ephraim's explanatory dictionary. T. F. Efremova. 2000... Modern Dictionary Russian language Efremova

Storyteller, storytellers, storyteller, storytellers, storyteller, storytellers, storyteller, storytellers, storyteller, storytellers, storyteller, storytellers (Source: “Full accentuated paradigm according to A. A. Zaliznyak”) ... Forms of words

narrator- See the image of the narrator... Dictionary of literary terms

narrator- the story is told, and... Russian spelling dictionary

narrator- see the image of the narrator... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus in literary studies

Books

The best storyteller wins
The best storyteller wins. How to Persuade and Influence with Eloquence by Annette Simmons. The gift of eloquence is one of the most valuable communication tools and is gaining increasing popularity in the business world. A sincere remark or a story told from the heart is not just...

Concept narration in a broad sense, it implies communication between a certain subject telling about events and the reader and is applied not only to literary texts (for example, a scientist-historian narrates about events). Obviously, one should first of all correlate the narrative with the structure of the literary work. In this case, it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: “the event that is being told” and “the event of the telling itself.” The term "narrative" corresponds to in this case exclusively to the second “event”.

Two clarifications need to be made. Firstly, the narrating subject has direct contact with the addressee-reader, absent, for example, in cases of inserted stories addressed by some characters to others. Secondly, a clear distinction between the two named aspects of the work is possible, and their relative autonomy is characteristic mainly of epic works. Of course, the story of a character in a drama about events that are not shown on stage, or a similar story about the past of a lyrical subject (not to mention a special lyrical genre"story in verse ») represent phenomena close to epic storytelling. But these will already be transitional forms.

There is a distinction between a story about the events of one of the characters, addressed not to the reader, but to listeners-characters, and a story about the same events by a subject of image and speech who is intermediary between the world of the characters and the reality of the reader. Only the story in the second meaning should – with a more precise and responsible use of words – be called “narration”. For example, inserted stories in Pushkin’s “The Shot” (the stories of Silvio and Count B*) are considered as such precisely because they function within the depicted world and become known thanks to the main narrator, who conveys them to the reader, addressing him directly, and not to one or another event participants.

Thus, with an approach that differentiates “acts of storytelling” depending on their addressee, the category of narrator can be correlated with such different subjects of image and speech as narrator , narrator And « author's image». What they have in common is mediation function, and on this basis distinctions can be made.

Narrator – That , who informs the reader about the events and actions of the characters, records the passage of time, depicts the appearance of the characters and the setting of the action, analyzes internal state the hero and the motives of his behavior, characterizes him human type(mental disposition, temperament, attitude to moral standards, etc.), without being either a participant in the events or, more importantly, an object of depiction for any of the characters. The specificity of the narrator is simultaneously in his comprehensive outlook (its boundaries coincide with the boundaries of the depicted world) and in the address of his speech primarily to the reader, i.e., its direction just beyond the boundaries of the depicted world. In other words, this specificity is determined by the position “on the border” of fictional reality.

Let us emphasize: the narrator is not a person, but function. Or, as the German writer Thomas Mann said (in the novel “The Chosen One”), “the weightless, ethereal and omnipresent spirit of storytelling.” But a function can be attached to a character (or a spirit can be embodied in him) - provided that the character as a narrator is completely different from himself as an actor.

This is the situation in Pushkin's The captain's daughter" At the end of this work, the original conditions of the story seem to change decisively: “I have not witnessed everything that remains for me to notify the reader; but I have heard stories about it so often that the slightest details are engraved in my memory and that it seems to me as if I were there, invisibly present.” Invisible presence is the traditional prerogative of the narrator, and not the storyteller. But is the way of covering events in this part of the work any different from everything that preceded it? Obviously, nothing. Not to mention the absence of purely verbal differences, in both cases the subject of the narrative equally easily brings his point of view closer to the point of view of the character. Masha, in the same way, does not know who the real lady is, whom she managed to “examine from head to toe,” just as the character Grinev, who “seemed remarkable” the appearance of his counselor, does not suspect who she actually accidentally introduced him to life. But the limited vision of the characters is accompanied by portraits of the interlocutors that, in their psychological insight and depth, go far beyond their capabilities. On the other hand, the narrating Grinev is by no means a definite personality, in contrast to Grinev, the protagonist. The second is the image object for the first; the same as all the other characters. At the same time, Pyotr Grinev’s character’s view of what is happening is limited by the conditions of place and time, including features of age and development; his point of view as a narrator is much deeper. On the other hand, Grinev the character is perceived differently by other characters. But in the special function of the “I-narrator,” the subject, whom we call Grinev, is not the subject of the image for any of the characters. He is a subject of depiction only for the author-creator.

The “attachment” of the narrative function to the character is motivated in “The Captain’s Daughter” by the fact that Grinev is credited with the “authorship” of the notes. The character, as it were, turns into the author: hence the broadening of his horizons. The opposite course of artistic thought is also possible: the author turns into a special character, creating his own “double” within the depicted world. This is what happens in the novel “Eugene Onegin”. The one who addresses the reader with the words “Now we will fly to the garden, / Where Tatyana met him,” is, of course, the narrator. In the reader’s mind, he is easily identified, on the one hand, with the author-creator (the creator of the work as an artistic whole), on the other, with the character who, together with Onegin, remembers “the beginning of a young life” on the banks of the Neva. In fact, in the depicted world, as one of the heroes, there is, of course, not the author-creator (this is impossible), but the “image of the author”, the prototype of which for the creator of the work is himself as an “extra-artistic” person - as a private person with a special biography (“But the north is harmful to me”) and as a person of a certain profession (belonging to the “perky workshop”).

Concepts " narrator " And " author's image "Sometimes they are mixed up, but they can and should be distinguished. First of all, both of them should be distinguished – precisely as “images” – from the one who created them author-creator. That the narrator is “a fictitious figure, not identical with the author” is a generally accepted opinion. The relationship between the “image of the author” and the original or “primary” author is not so clear. According to M.M. Bakhtin, “the image of the author” is something “created, not created.”

The “image of the author” is created by the original author (the creator of the work) according to the same principle as a self-portrait in painting. This analogy makes it possible to quite clearly distinguish the creation from the creator. A self-portrait of an artist, from a theoretical point of view, can include not only himself with an easel, palette and brush, but also a painting standing on a stretcher, in which the viewer, after looking closely, recognizes the resemblance of the self-portrait he is contemplating. In other words, the artist can depict himself drawing this very self-portrait in front of the audience (cf.: “By now, in the place of my novel / I have finished the first chapter”). But he cannot show how this picture is created as a whole - with the perception of the viewer double perspective (with a self-portrait inside). To create an “image of the author,” like any other, a true author needs a fulcrum outside works, outside the “field of image” (M.M. Bakhtin).

The narrator, unlike the author-creator, is outside only that depicted time and space, under which the plot unfolds. Therefore, he can easily go back or run ahead, and also know the premises or results of the events of the present depicted. But its possibilities are at the same time determined from beyond the boundaries of the entire artistic whole, which includes the depicted “event of the storytelling itself.” The “omniscience” of the narrator (for example, in “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy) is also included in author's intention, as in other cases - in “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky or in the novels of I.S. Turgenev - the narrator, according to the author's instructions, does not have complete knowledge about the causes of events or about the inner life of the heroes.

In contrast to the narrator narrator is not on the border of the fictional world with the reality of the author and reader, but entirely inside depicted reality. All the main points of the “event of the story itself” in this case become the subject of the image, the “facts” of fictional reality: the “framing” situation of the story (in the short story tradition and oriented towards it prose XIX-XX centuries); the personality of the narrator: he is either biographically connected with the characters about whom he is telling the story (the writer in “The Humiliated and the Insulted,” the chronicler in F. M. Dostoevsky’s “Demons”), or in any case has a special, by no means comprehensive, outlook; a specific speech manner attached to a character or depicted on its own (“The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich Quarreled” by N.V. Gogol). If no one sees the narrator inside the depicted world and does not assume the possibility of his existence, then the narrator certainly enters the horizon of either the narrator or the characters - the listeners (Ivan Vasilyevich in the story “After the Ball” by L.N. Tolstoy).

The image of the narrator- How character or as a “linguistic person” (M.M. Bakhtin) is a necessary distinguishing feature of this type of depicting subject, but the inclusion in the field of depiction of the circumstances of the story is optional. For example, in Pushkin’s “The Shot” there are three narrators, but only two storytelling situations are shown. If such a role is assigned to a character whose story bears no signs of either his outlook or his speech manner (the story of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov in Fathers and Sons, attributed to Arkady), this is perceived as a conventional device. Its goal is to relieve the author of responsibility for the accuracy of what is told. In fact, the subject of the image in this part of Turgenev’s novel is the narrator.

So, the narrator is the subject of the image, quite objectified and associated with a certain socio-cultural and linguistic environment, from the perspective of which (as happens in the same “Shot”) he portrays other characters. The narrator, on the contrary, is close in his outlook to the author-creator. At the same time, compared to the heroes, he is a bearer of a more neutral speech element, generally accepted linguistic and stylistic norms. This is how, for example, the narrator’s speech differs from Marmeladov’s story in Crime and Punishment. The closer the hero is to the author, the fewer speech differences between the hero and the narrator. Therefore, the leading characters of a great epic, as a rule, are not the subjects of stylistically distinct stories.

The narrator’s “mediation” helps the reader, first of all, to obtain a more reliable and objective understanding of events and actions, as well as the inner life of the characters. The narrator's "mediation" allows entry inside depicted world and look at events through the eyes of the characters. The first is associated with certain advantages external points of view. Conversely, works that seek to directly involve the reader in the character’s perception of events do without a narrator at all or almost without, using the forms of diary, correspondence, and confession (“Poor People” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Letters of Ernest and Doravra” by F. Emin). The third, intermediate option is when the author-creator seeks to balance the external and internal positions. In such cases, the image of the narrator and his story can turn out to be a “bridge” or a connecting link: this is the case in “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, where the story of Maxim Maksimych connects the “travel notes” of the Author-character with the “magazine” of Pechorin.

So, in a broad sense (that is, without taking into account the differences between compositional forms of speech), a narrative is a set of those statements of speech subjects (narrator, narrator, image of the author) that perform the functions of “mediation” between the depicted world and the reader - the addressee of the entire work as a single artistic work statements.

The word "author" (from lat. aust - subject of action, founder, organizer, teacher and, in particular, creator of a work) has several meanings in the field of art criticism. This is, firstly, the creator of a work of art as real face with a certain destiny, biography, complex of individual traits. Secondly, this author's image, localized in a literary text, i.e. depiction by a writer, painter, sculptor, director of himself. And finally, thirdly (which is especially important for us now), this is the artist-creator, present in his creation as a whole, immanent work. Author (in this meaning of the word) presents and illuminates reality (being and its phenomena) in a certain way, comprehends and evaluates them, manifesting itself as subject artistic activity.

The author's subjectivity organizes the work and, one might say, generates its artistic integrity. It constitutes an integral, universal, most important facet of art (along with its own aesthetic and cognitive principles). The “spirit of authorship” is not only present, but dominates in any form of artistic activity: and if the work has individual creator, and in situations of group, collective creativity, and in those cases (now prevailing) when the author is named and when his name is hidden (anonymity, pseudonym, hoax).

Bakhtin wrote that one should distinguish between the biographical author and the author as an aesthetic category. The author stands on the border of the world he creates as its active creator. The reader treats the author as a set of creative principles that must be implemented. And ideas about the author as a person are secondary.

Narrator- this is a conventional figure in the epic, a fictional intermediary between the author and the reader, the one who reports everything that happens in the work, without himself participating in the events, being outside the given figurative world. In terms of his outlook, he is close to the author, but not identical to him. The narrator is not the only form author's consciousness. The author also manifests himself in the plot, composition, organization of time and space. While the narrator only tells. For example, in “A Hero of Our Time” the narrator is a literary officer. In The Captain's Daughter, Pyotr Grinev, as the “author” of the notes, is the narrator, and he, in his youth, is the character. One should distinguish from the narrator the narrator, who is located entirely within the work; he is also a subject of the image, associated with a certain socio-cultural and linguistic environment. Lermontovsky Maxim Maksimych, for example, is a narrating character. The subject of the tale is also qualified as a narrator, and it does not matter whether he is a hero or not.

Character- This actor(a person or a personified creature, sometimes a thing, a natural phenomenon) in epic and drama, the subject of consciousness and partly actions in lyric poetry They also talk about collective heroes: images Famusov society, the image of the people in War and Peace. Characters can be main and secondary, cross-cutting, episodic and off-stage. Sometimes their roles in the plot and content are far from the same. According to their characters and actions, they are divided into positive and negative.

Character– this is the subject objective world works, the fruit of the author's invention. Compared to the author, the character is always limited, while the author is omnipresent.

The author invariably expresses (of course, in language artistic images, and not direct conclusions) your attitude to the position, attitudes, value orientation your character (hero - in the terminology of M.M. Bakhtin). At the same time, the image of the character (like all other links in the verbal and artistic form) appears as the embodiment of the writer’s concept, idea, i.e. as something whole within the framework of another, broader, actually artistic integrity(works as such). He depends on this integrity; one might say, he serves it at the will of the author. With any serious mastery of the character sphere of the work, the reader inevitably penetrates into spiritual world author: in the images of heroes he sees (first of all, by direct feeling) the creative will of the writer.

The author's attitude towards the hero can be predominantly either alienated or related, but not neutral. Writers have repeatedly spoken about the closeness or alienness of their characters. “I,” Cervantes wrote in the prologue to Don Quixote, “only am considered the father of Don Quixote, - in fact, I am his stepfather, and I am not going to follow the beaten path and, as others do, almost with tears in my eyes, beg you , dear reader, forgive my brainchild its shortcomings or turn a blind eye to them.”

In literary works, one way or another there is a distance between the character and the author. It occurs even in the autobiographical genre, where the writer, from a certain temporary distance, comprehends his own life experience. The author can look at his hero as if from the bottom up (the lives of the saints), or, on the contrary, from the top down (works of an accusatory and satirical nature). But the most deeply rooted in literature (especially of recent centuries) is the situation of the essential equality of the writer and the character (which, of course, does not signify their identity). Pushkin persistently made it clear to the reader of Eugene Onegin that his hero belongs to the same circle as himself (“my good friend”). According to V.G. Rasputin, it is important “that the author does not feel superior to his heroes and does not make himself more experienced than them”: “Only equality during work in the most miraculous way gives rise to living heroes, and not doll figurines.”

Literary characters, however, are able to separate themselves from the works in which they were born and live in the consciousness of the public independent life, not subject to the author's will. Such are Hamlet, Don Quixote, Tariof, Faust, Peer Gynt as part of pan-European culture; for the Russian consciousness - Tatyana Larina (largely thanks to Dostoevsky’s interpretation of her image), Chatsky and Molchalin, Nozdrev and Manilov, Pierre Bezukhov and Natasha Rostova. In particular, famous characters A.S. Griboyedov and N.V. Gogol in the 1870–1880s “moved” into the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and lived there new life. “If there can be novels and dramas from the lives of historical figures,” noted F. Sologub, “then there can be novels and dramas about Raskolnikov, about Eugene Onegin (170)<...>which are so close to us that we can sometimes tell about them details that their creator did not have in mind.”

Hyperbole and litotes, their functions in literature. The concept of the grotesque.

Everything is in shuriks.

Functions.

Already in the heroic folk epic, the strong hyperbolization of the military actions of the heroes expresses a sublimely emotional affirmation of their national significance. (Dobrynushka began to push the Tatars away... He grabbed the Tatar by the legs. He began to wave the Tatar, He began to beat the Tatars...)
Later, especially starting from the Renaissance, hyperbole, like other traditional types verbal and objective expressiveness has turned into a means of expressing artistic content itself. It began to be used with particular force as a method of creative typification of comic characters in their humorous and satirical interpretation.

“He sat down at the table and, being phlegmatic by nature, began his dinner with several dozen hams, smoked tongues and sausages, caviar and other appetizers preceding wine. At this time, four servants, one after another, continuously threw spoonfuls of mustard into his mouth...” - this is how the life of the giant Gargantua is described. (Rabelais)

3. in works with romantic pathos, verbal-subject hyperbolism sometimes also becomes a depiction device. Such, for example, is the image of Hans the Icelander in novel of the same name Hugo, or the images of the serpent and the eagle in the introduction to Shelley’s poem “The Rise of Islam”, or the image of Prometheus in Bryusov’s poetic “symphony” “Memoirs”.

4. In works that glorify the heroism of popular uprisings, verbal-subject hyperbolism is an integral property of figurativeness. For example, in “The Mutiny” by E. Verhaeren (translation by V. Bryusov):

Countless steps, the increasing tramp, Louder and louder in the ominous shadow, On the road in the days to come.

Hands are stretched out to the torn clouds, Where suddenly a threatening thunder roars, And lightning catches the break.

Examples of litotes: In A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit” Molchalin says:

Your Pomeranian is a lovely Pomeranian, no more than a thimble!
I stroked him all over; like silk wool!

N.V. Gogol often turned to litotes. For example, in the story “Nevsky Prospekt”: “such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces”, “a waist no thicker than a bottle neck.” Or here is a fragment from the story “The Overcoat”: “He took the overcoat out of the handkerchief in which he brought it; the handkerchief had just come from the washerwoman; he then folded it and put it in his pocket for use.”

N. A. Nekrasov in “Eryomushka’s Song”: “You have to bow your head below a thin piece of grass.” In the poem “Peasant Children” he used the folklore expression “little man with a fingernail”:

And walking importantly, in decorous calm,
A man leads a horse by the bridle
In big boots, in a short sheepskin coat,
In big mittens... and from the nails myself!

This trope has the connotation of understatement or deliberate softening. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

5. Literature as the art of words. The place of literature among other arts. G.-E. Lessing about the specificity of literature as art.

The uniqueness of each type of art is determined primarily by the material means of creating images. In this regard, it is natural to characterize literature as verbal art: the material carrier of its imagery is human speech, the basis of which is one or another national language.

Literary literature combines two different arts: the art of fiction (manifested mainly in fictional prose, which is relatively easily translated into other languages) and the art of words as such (which determines the appearance of poetry, which loses almost the most important thing in translation).

The actual verbal aspect of literature, in turn, is two-dimensional. Speech here appears, firstly, as a means of representation and as a way of evaluative illumination of non-verbal reality; and secondly, as subject of the image- statements belonging to someone and characterizing someone. Literature, in other words, is capable of recreating speech activity people, and this especially sharply distinguishes it from all other forms of art.

Word- the main element of literature, the connection between the material and the spiritual. A word is perceived as the sum of the meanings that human culture has given it. The word adapts to different types thinking.

The essence of the word is contradictory.

Ext. and internal forms of the word: 1) understandable to everyone, solid composition, stable, unshakable manifestation - “body” 2) individually - “soul”. The external and external form constitute a unity.

Differences and unity external. and internal forms of a word, the inconsistency of a word is the basis for constructing a text.

The word is material (a means of constructing phrases and text) and immaterial (changeable content).

The word and its meaning depends on its use.

Comparison can be simple and detailed. A simple comparison is based on comparing the phenomena of life by their similarity, just like a metaphor. Expanded comparison - similarity is established in the absence of identity. Two members of the expanded comparison, two compared images, are established. One is the main one, created by the development of a narrative or lyrical meditation, and the other is auxiliary (brought in for comparison with the main one). The function of a detailed comparison is to reveal a number of features of one phenomenon or to characterize a whole group of phenomena. Expanded comparison

Comparison(from lat. comparatio) - type of trail, this artistic technique, a figurative verbal expression in which one event (phenomenon) is compared with another, similarities are established between two phenomena of life, one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common characteristic in order to identify new, important properties in the object. These phenomena themselves do not form a new concept, but are preserved as independent. Comparison includes three components: the subject of comparison (what is being compared), the object of comparison (what is being compared with) and the attribute of comparison (what the realities being compared have in common). For artistic speech, it is common to compare two different concepts in order to emphasize one side or the other in one of them.

Almost every figurative expression can be reduced to a comparison (cf. the gold of the leaves - the leaves are yellow like gold, the reeds are dozing - the reeds are motionless, as if they are dozing). Unlike other tropes, comparison is always binary: it names both compared objects (phenomena, qualities, actions). “Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). “Neva tossed about like a sick person in her restless bed.”

Comparison task- make the reader feel what is written more vividly. Comparison helps to instill in the reader the author’s attitude towards the subject of the main narrative by mentioning a compared subject that evokes a similar attitude towards itself. The comparison is based not so much on the similarity of the objects being compared, but on the similarity of the author’s attitude towards the objects being compared.

Comparison value as an act of artistic cognition in that the bringing together of different objects helps to reveal in the object of comparison, in addition to the main feature, also a number of additional features, which significantly enriches the artistic impression.

Along with simple comparisons in which two phenomena have one common feature, detailed comparisons, in which several characteristics serve as the basis for comparison. With the help of detailed comparisons, a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections is conveyed. An extended comparison is a figurative technique that compares two images (and not two objects, as in a simple comparison). One of them is the main one, the main one in meaning, the other is auxiliary, used for comparison with the main one.

Example: “Like a hawk swimming in the sky, having made many circles with its strong wings, suddenly stops spread out in one place and shoots from there with an arrow at a male quail who was shouting near the road - so Taras’s son, Ostap, suddenly flew into the cornet and immediately threw it at him.” a rope around the neck" (Ya.-V. Gogol). Here Ostap is the main member, and the hawk is an auxiliary.

The relationship between the two terms of a strongly developed comparison can be different both in their cognitive meaning and in their place in the development of creative thought. Sometimes an auxiliary comparison member can receive an independent value. That is, similarity is established in the absence of identity. Then the auxiliary member can syntactically become the content of a separate sentence, no longer subordinate to another with the help of the conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, but only in the meaning of the coordinating conjunction-adverb “so” associated with it. Grammatically, it is a "composed simile". Here is an example from Fet's lyrics:

Only you, poet, winged words sound

Grabs on the fly and fastens suddenly

And the dark delirium of the soul and the vague smell of herbs;

So, for the boundless, leaving the meager valley,

An eagle flies beyond the clouds of Jupiter,

Carrying an instant sheaf of lightning in faithful paws.

And, like a lion attacks the calves and suddenly crushes them

The neck of the bull or the heifer grazing in the green grove -

So both Priamides from the horses of Diomedes, who did not want,

He mercilessly knocked them to dust and tore the armor off the victims,

He gave the horses to the minions, and they drove them to the ship’s stern. (Iliad)

The function of a detailed comparison is to reveal a number of features of one phenomenon or to characterize a whole group of phenomena.

Comparisons are subdivided on simple(“A girl, black-haired and tender as the night,” A.M. Gorky) and complex(“Die my verse, die like a private, like our nameless ones died during the assaults,” V. Mayakovsky).

There are also:

negative comparisons:

“Not two clouds converged in the sky, two daring knights converged” (A.S. Pushkin). From folklore, these comparisons moved into Russian poetry (“It was not the wind, blowing from above, that touched the sheets on the lunar night; you touched my soul - it is anxious, like sheets, it is multi-stringed, like a harp,” A.K. Tolstoy). Negative comparisons pit one thing against another. In the parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.

vague comparisons, in which the highest assessment of what is being described is given, but does not receive, however, a specific figurative expression (“You can’t tell, you can’t describe what kind of life it is when in battle behind someone else’s fire you hear your own artillery,” A.T. Tvardovsky). Vague comparisons also include folklore, a stable expression that cannot be said in a fairy tale or described with a pen.

11. The concept of the literary process.

The literary process is literary life a certain country and era (in the totality of its phenomena and facts), and secondly, the centuries-old development of literature on a global, worldwide scale. In the second meaning of lit. The process is the subject of comparative historical literary criticism (Khalizev.) It is already possible to designate this term as a set of works over a certain period of time.

L.p. not strictly unambiguous: erased literary memory, some works disappear from it (antique ones, for example). Some things disappear from our everyday reading (works of the 1810s). Entire layers of literature are forgotten (the Radishchevites, although their work was very popular).

Literary creativity subject to historical changes. But literary evolution takes place on a certain stable, stable basis. As part of culture, there are individualized and dynamic phenomena - on the one hand, and on the other - universal, transtemporal, static structures, often called topic (place, space). Topoi (halizev): types of emotional mood, moral and philosophical problems (good, evil, truth, beauty), eternal themes and arsenal artistic forms, which always and everywhere find application, constitute a fund of continuity, without which lit. the process is not possible.

In the development of literatures different countries there are moments of commonality and repetition. The stages of the literary process are usually thought of as corresponding to those stages of human history that most fully manifested themselves in European countries, especially in the Romanesque countries. When these views and ideals turn out to be “prerequisites” for the creativity of writers from different countries, then in their creativity itself, in the content and form of the works, there may also be certain similarities. This is how stage communities arise in literature different nations. On their basis, within their limits in different literatures, of course, appear at the same time national characteristics literatures of different peoples, their national identity, arising from the originality of the ideological and cultural development of one or another people.

This is the basic pattern of world literary development.

Ancient and medieval literature was characterized by the prevalence of works with non-artistic functions (religious-cult, ritual, informative, business), the widespread existence of anonymity, the predominance oral creativity over writing. This literature was characterized by a lack of realism. Stage 1 of world literature – archaic period. There is no literary criticism here, artistically - creative programs, so we can’t talk about the literary process here.

Then second stage, which lasted from sir. 1 thousand. BC. and until the middle of the 18th century. Here is the traditionalism of artistic consciousness and the “poetics of style and genre”: writers were guided by pre-made forms of speech that met the requirements of rhetoric and were dependent on genre canons. Two stages are distinguished here, the milestone of which was the Renaissance. On the second stage, literature moves from the impersonal to the personal (although still within the framework of traditionalism), literature becomes to a greater extent becomes secular.

The third stage was the era after the Enlightenment and romanticism, the main thing here was “individual creative artistic consciousness.” The “poetics of the author” dominates. Literature is getting extremely close to human existence, and the era of individual authorial styles is coming. This took place in romanticism and realism of the 19th century, in modernism. The examples given show that, despite the stage-by-stage commonality of the literature of individual peoples, they are not only distinguished by their national identity, but also, arising in a class society, contain internal and ideological differences.

Factors that determine the boundaries of the casting process:

The work must have a material form.
literary clubs\associations (writers who consider themselves close on any issues)

Writers act as a certain group that conquers part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, “divided” between them. Issue manifestos expressing general sentiments of one group or another, predicting the path along which the direction will go. Manifestos appear at the moment of the formation of a literary group.

literary criticism for published works. The author must be noticed by literary criticism. For example, Gogol's first work, Hans Kbchelbecker, was destroyed by the author. As a result, it was withdrawn from the literary process.
oral criticism\discussion of works The work should attract attention public opinion. For example, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” caused a wide resonance in society and was nominated for the Lenin Prize. This indicates that the work was included in literary process.
awarding prizes
journalism
unofficial distribution

As the literary process progresses, various literary communities, directions. Literary direction is one of the factors in the literary process. ABOUT literary direction should be said only if the writers within it are aware of their community and determine their literary position.

In the 18th century, classicism dominated. With its strict canonicity and rhetoric.

In the 19th century (especially in its first third) the development of literature went under the sign of romanticism, which opposed classicist and enlightenment rationalism. Initially romanticism gained a foothold in Germany, having received a deep theoretical basis, and soon spread across the European continent and beyond. It was this artistic movement that marked a worldwide significant shift from traditionalism to the poetics of the author. Romanticism (in particular German) is very heterogeneous. V.M. Zhirmunsky is the main figure in the romantic movement early XIX V. The scientist did not consider dual worlds or the experience of a tragic discord with reality (in the spirit of Hoffmann and Heine), but the idea of the spirituality of human existence, of its “permeation” with the divine principle.

Following romanticism, inheriting it, and in some ways challenging it, in the 19th century. a new literary and artistic community, denoted by the word realism. The essence of realism in relation to the literature of the last century (when talking about its best examples, the phrase “classical realism” is often used) and its place in the literary process are understood in different ways.

The essence of classical realism of the last century is the broad development of living connections between a person and his close environment. Realism (unlike romanticism with its powerful “Byronic branch”) is not inclined to exalt and idealize a hero alienated from reality. Reality was perceived by realist writers as imperiously demanding from a person a responsible involvement in it.

In the 20th century With traditional realism other, new literary communities coexist and interact. This is, in particular, socialist realism , which was aggressively propagated by the political authorities in the USSR and the countries of the socialist camp and even spread beyond their borders.

The literature of socialist realism usually relied on the forms of depicting life characteristic of classical realism, but in its essence it opposed the creative attitudes and attitudes of the majority writers of the 19th century V. In the 1930s and later, the opposition between the two stages proposed by M. Gorky was persistently repeated and varied. realistic method. This is, firstly, characteristic of the 19th century. critical realism , which was believed to reject the existing social existence with its class antagonisms and, secondly, socialist realism, which affirmed the re-emerging in the 20th century. reality, comprehended life in its revolutionary development towards socialism and communism.

To the forefront of literature and art in the 20th century. moved forward modernism, who manifested himself most clearly in poetry. The features of modernism are the maximum free self-disclosure of authors, their persistent desire to update artistic language, a focus more on the universal and culturally-historically distant than on the close reality. In all this, modernism is closer to romanticism than to classical realism.

Modernism is extremely heterogeneous. He declared himself in a number of directions and schools, especially numerous at the beginning of the century, among which the first place (not only chronologically, but also in terms of the role he played in art and culture) rightfully belongs to symbolism, primarily French and Russian. It is not surprising that the literature that replaced it is called post-symbolism, which has now become the subject of close attention of scientists (Acmeism, futurism and other literary movements and schools).

As part of modernism, which largely determined the face of literature in the 20th century, it is right to distinguish two trends, closely related to each other, but at the same time multidirectional: avant-garde, who survived its “peak” point in futurism, and (using the term of V. I. Tyupa) neo-traditionalism, which is very difficult to separate from avant-garde: “The powerful opposition of these spiritual forces creates that productive tension of creative reflection, that field of gravity in which all more or less significant phenomena of art of the 20th century are located in one way or another. Such tension is often found within the works themselves, so it is hardly possible to draw an unambiguous line of demarcation between avant-garde artists and neo-traditionalists. The essence of the artistic paradigm of our century, apparently, lies in the non-merger and inseparability of the moments that form this opposition.” The author names T. S. Eliot, O.E. as prominent representatives of neo-traditionalism. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatov, B.L. Pasternak, I.A. Brodsky.

Terms (just in case, if you don’t want to, don’t)): literary movements- this is a refraction in the work of certain writers and poets public views(worldviews, ideologies), and directions- these are writer groups that arise on the basis of common aesthetic views and certain programs of artistic activity (expressed in treatises, manifestos, slogans). Currents and directions in this meaning of words are facts of individual national literatures, but not international communities.

International literary communities ( art systems , as I.F. called them. Volkov) clear chronological framework they do not: often in the same era various literary and general artistic “trends” coexist, which seriously complicates their systematic, logically ordered consideration.

For recent years the study of the literary process on a global scale is increasingly emerging as a development historical poetics. The subject of this scientific discipline, which exists as part of comparative historical literary criticism, is the evolution of verbal and artistic forms (with content), as well as the creative principles of writers: their aesthetic attitudes and artistic worldview.

There is a rich tradition of examining literature and its evolution in terms of style, understood very broadly, as a stable complex of formal artistic properties. International literary communities D.S. Likhachev is called "great styles", distinguishing in their composition primary(gravitating towards simplicity and plausibility) and secondary(more decorative, formalized, conditional). The scientist views the centuries-old literary process as a kind of oscillatory movement between primary (longer-lasting) and secondary (short-term) styles. To the first he classifies the Romanesque style, Renaissance, classicism, and realism; the second - Gothic, Baroque, Romanticism.

Over the course of several decades (since the 1930s), the term creative method as a characteristic of literature as knowledge (mastery) social life. Changing currents and directions were considered as marked by a greater or lesser degree of presence in them realism. So, I.F. Volkov analyzed artistic systems (371) mainly from the point of view of the creative method underlying them.

Epic as a literary genre.

In Shuriks.

Reproducing life in words, using all the possibilities of human speech, fiction surpasses all other forms of art in the versatility, diversity and richness of its content. Content is often called what is directly depicted in a work, what can be retold after reading it. But it is not exactly. If we have an epic or dramatic work, then you can retell what happened to the heroes, what happened to them. As a rule, it is generally impossible to retell what is depicted in a lyrical work. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between what is known in a work and what is depicted in it. Characters are depicted, creatively created, fictitious by the writer, endowed with all kinds of individual characteristics, placed in one or another relationship. The general, essential features of life are learned. Individual actions and experiences of characters and heroes serve as a way of expressing ideological and emotional comprehension and emotional assessment of the general, essential things in life. The emotional and generalizing thought of the writer expressed in the work is called an idea. The analysis of the work should lie in its knowledge.

Topics- these are those phenomena of reality that are reflected in this work. Subject- a subject of knowledge. The subject of depiction in works of fiction can be a variety of phenomena. human life, life of nature, animal and flora, and material culture(buildings, settings, views of cities, etc.). But the main subject of knowledge in fiction is the social characters of people, both in their external manifestations, relationships, activities, and in their internal, mental life, in the state and development of their thoughts and experiences.
Issues- this is the writer’s ideological understanding of the social characters that he depicted in the work. This comprehension lies in the fact that the writer highlights and strengthens those properties, aspects, relationships of the characters depicted, which he, based on his ideological worldview, considers the most significant

The problematic, to an even greater extent than the subject matter, depends on the author’s worldview. Therefore, the life of the same social environment can be perceived differently by writers who have different ideological worldviews. Gorky and Kuprin depicted a factory working environment in their works. However, in the awareness of her life they are far from each other. In his novel “Mother” and in his drama “Enemies,” Gorky is interested in people in this environment who are politically minded and morally strong. Kuprin, in the story “Moloch,” sees in the workers a faceless mass of exhausted, suffering people worthy of sympathy.

13. Works of art, fiction in particular, always express ideological-emotional attitude writers to the social characters they depict. It is thanks to the expression of this assessment in images that literary works have such a strong effect on the thoughts, feelings, will of readers and listeners, on their entire inner world.

The attitude to life expressed in a work, or its ideological and emotional assessment, always depends on the writer’s understanding of the characters he portrays and always thereby follows from his worldview. A writer can express satisfaction with the life he perceives, sympathy for one or another of its properties, admiration for them, justification for them, in short, your ideological statement e life. Or he may express dissatisfaction with some other properties of life, their condemnation, the protest and indignation caused by them, in short, his ideological rejection of the characters depicted. If the writer is dissatisfied with some life events, then his assessment is ideological denial. So, for example, Pushkin showed the free life of the gypsies in order to express his romantic admiration for civil liberty in general and his deep dissatisfaction with the “captivity of stuffy cities.” Ostrovsky portrayed the tyranny of merchants and landowners in order to condemn everything Russian " dark kingdom"of his era.

All sides ideological content of a work of art - themes, problematics and ideological assessment - are in organic unity. Idea a literary work is the unity of all aspects of its content; This is a figurative, emotional, generalizing thought of the writer, which determines the deep level of the content of the work and is manifested in the choice, and in the comprehension, and in the assessment of characters.

Not always artistic idea was perceived as the author's. In the early stages of the existence of literature, they were recognized as expressions objective truth of divine origin. It was believed that the muses bring inspiration to poets. Homer begins the Iliad: “Wrath, O Goddess, sing to Achilles, son of Peleus.”

Literature and mythology.

Myth – scientific form knowledge in mytho-poetic form. Mythology is not a phenomenon of the past, it manifests itself in modern culture. The constant interaction between literature and literature occurs directly, in the form of the “transfusion” of myth into literature, and indirectly: through fine Arts, rituals, folk festivals, religious mysteries, and in last centuries- through scientific concepts of mythology, aesthetic and philosophical teachings and folklore. Scientific concepts of folklore have big influence on the processes of interaction between L. and M.

Myths are characteristic of ancient, partly ancient Russian literature.