Abstract: Federal Republic of Germany. German Democratic Republic

Germany

The split of Germany into the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic

The geopolitical results of World War II were catastrophic for Germany. It lost its statehood for several years and long years- territorial integrity. 24% of the territory Germany occupied in 1936 was torn off, including East Prussia, divided between Poland and the USSR. Poland and Czechoslovakia received the right to evict ethnic Germans from their territories, as a result of which a stream of refugees moved into Germany (by the end of 1946, their number was about 9 million people).

By decision of the Crimean Conference, German territory was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. Berlin was similarly divided into four sectors. At the Potsdam Conference, the basic principles of the occupation policy of the Allied states were agreed upon (demilitarization, denazification, decartelization, democratization of Germany). However, the lack of firm agreements on the German problem led to the fact that the administrations of the occupation zones applied the Potsdam principles at their own discretion.

The leadership of the Soviet military administration in Germany immediately took measures to form an obedient regime in its zone. Local committees spontaneously created by anti-fascists were dissolved. Central departments were created to resolve administrative and economic issues. Main role they were played by communists and social democrats. In the summer of 1945, the activities of 4 political parties were allowed: the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDP). Theoretically, all authorized parties used equal rights, but in practice Soviet authority openly preferred CNG.

Based on the idea that Nazism was a product of capitalism and denazification implied a struggle against capitalist influence in German society, Soviet power seized the “commanding heights” of the economy in the first months of the occupation. Many large enterprises were nationalized on the grounds that they belonged to the Nazis or their supporters. These enterprises were either dismantled and sent to the Soviet Union to pay for reparations, or continued to operate as Soviet property. In September 1945, land reform was carried out, during which more than 7,100 estates with an area of ​​more than 100 hectares were expropriated free of charge. From the created land fund, about 120 thousand landless peasants, agricultural workers and migrants received small plots. WITH civil service reactionaries were fired.

The Soviet administration forced the SPD and the KPD to merge into a new party called the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In subsequent years, communist control became increasingly harsh. In January 1949, the SED conference decided that the party should become a Leninist "party of a new type" on the model of the Communist Party Soviet Union. Thousands of socialists and communists who disagreed with this line were expelled from the party in a purge. Overall in Soviet zone The occupation followed the same model as other Eastern European countries. She meant the Stalinization of the Marxist party, the deprivation of the independence of the “middle class” parties, further nationalization, repressive measures and the virtual elimination of the competitive electoral system.

Western states acted in Germany as authoritarianly as the Soviet administration did in its zone. Anti-fascist committees were disbanded here too. Land governments were created (in American zone during 1945, in British and French - in 1946). Appointment to posts was carried out by a strong-willed decision of the occupation authorities. In the western occupation zones, the KPD and SPD also resumed their activities. The CDU was created, with which it established a “commonwealth” relationship; the Christian Social Union (CSU) was created in Bavaria; this party bloc began to be called the CDU / CSU. The liberal democracy camp was represented by the Free Democratic Party (FDP).

The US and UK soon became convinced that a revival of the German economy was vital to the recovery of Western Europe. The Americans and the British moved to coordinated actions. The first steps towards the unification of the western zones were taken at the end of 1946, when the American and British administrations agreed to unite the economic management of their zones from January 1, 1947. The so-called Bisonia was formed. The Bisonia administration received the status of parliament, i.e. purchased political rice. In 1948, the French also annexed their zone in Bisonia. The result was Trizonia.

In June 1948, the Reichsmark was replaced by the new "Deutsche Mark". The healthy tax base created by the new currency helped Germany join the Marshall Plan in 1949.

Currency reform led to the first clash between West and East as the Cold War began. In an effort to isolate their occupation zone from the influence of the Western economy, the Soviet leadership rejected both assistance under the Marshall Plan and the introduction of a new currency in its zone. It also relied on the introduction of the German mark in Berlin, but the Western Allies insisted that the new currency become legal tender in the western sectors of the city. To prevent the new brand from entering Berlin, the Soviet administration prevented cargo transportation from the west to Berlin by rail and highway. On June 23, 1948, the supply of Berlin by rail and road transport was completely blocked. The so-called Berlin crisis arose. The Western powers organized an intensive air supply (“air bridge”), which provided everything necessary not only to the military garrisons of Berlin, but also to its civilian population. May 11, 1949 Soviet side admitted defeat and ended the blockade. The Berlin crisis is over.

Increasing confrontation between the USSR and Western countries makes it impossible to create a unified German state. In August 1949, general parliamentary elections were held in West Germany, which brought victory to the CDU/CSU party, and on September 7 the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed. In response, on October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in the east of the country. So, in the fall of 1949, the split in Germany received legal formalization.

1952 The USA, England and France signed an agreement with Germany, according to which the formal occupation of West Germany ended, but their troops remained on German territory. In 1955, an agreement was signed between the USSR and the GDR on the full sovereignty and independence of the GDR.

West German "economic miracle"

In the parliamentary elections (Bundestag) of 1949, two leading political forces were determined: the CDU/CSU (139 mandates), the SPD (131 mandates) and the “third force” - the FDP (52 mandates). The CDU/CSU and FDP formed a parliamentary coalition, which allowed them to create a joint government. This is how a “two-and-a-half” party model developed in Germany (in contrast to the two-party model in the USA and Great Britain). This model continued in the future.

The first chancellor (head of government) of the Federal Republic of Germany was the Christian Democrat K. Adenauer (he held this position from 1949 to 1963). Characteristic feature his political style was a desire for stability. An equally important circumstance was the implementation of an exceptionally effective economic course. Its ideologist was the permanent Minister of Economics of the Federal Republic of Germany L. Erhard.

The model of social market economy created as a result of Erhard's policies was based on the concept of ordoliberalism (from the German "Ordung" - order). Ordoliberals advocated the free market mechanism, not despite, but because of government intervention. They saw the basis of economic well-being in the strengthening of economic order. The state was given key functions. Its intervention was supposed to replace the action of market mechanisms, and create conditions for their effective functioning.

A difficult period of economic reform occurred in 1949-1950, when the liberalization of pricing caused an increase in prices with a relative decrease in the level of income of the population, and the restructuring of production was accompanied by a surge in unemployment. But already in 1951 there was a turning point, and in 1952 the rise in prices stopped and the unemployment rate began to decline. In subsequent years, unprecedented economic growth occurred: 9-10% per year, and in 1953-1956 - up to 10-15% per year. Germany came in second place among Western countries in terms of level industrial production(and only in the late 60s was it pushed aside by Japan). Large exports made it possible to create a significant gold reserve in the country. The German currency has become the strongest in Europe. In the second half of the 50s, unemployment practically disappeared, and real incomes tripled. Until 1964, the gross national product (GNP) of Germany increased 3 times, and it began to produce more products than the entire pre-war Germany. At that time they started talking about the German “economic miracle”.

The West German “economic miracle” was due to a number of factors. Selected by Erhard has proven its effectiveness economic system, where liberal market mechanisms were combined with targeted tax and credit policies of the state. Erhard managed to achieve the adoption of strong anti-monopoly legislation. A significant role was played by revenues from the Marshall Plan, the lack of military spending (before Germany joined NATO), as well as the influx of foreign investment ($350 billion). In German industry, which was destroyed during the war, there was a massive renewal of fixed capital. The introduction of new technologies that accompanied this process, combined with the traditionally high efficiency and discipline of the German population, caused a rapid increase in labor productivity.

Developed successfully Agriculture. As a result of the agrarian reform of 1948-1949, carried out with the assistance of the occupation authorities, a redistribution of land property was carried out. As a result, most of the land fund passed from large owners to medium and small ones. In subsequent years, the share of those employed in agriculture steadily decreased, but widespread mechanization and electrification of peasant labor made it possible to ensure overall growth products from this sector.

It turned out to be very successful social politics, which encouraged direct relationships between employers and workers. The government acted under the motto: “Neither capital without labor, nor labor without capital can exist.” Were expanded pension funds, housing construction, system of free and preferential education, vocational training. The rights of labor collectives in the field of production management were expanded, but their political activity. The remuneration system was differentiated depending on the length of service at a particular enterprise. In 1960, the “Law for the Protection of the Rights of Youth at Work” was passed, and since 1963, minimum leave for all workers was introduced. Tax policy encouraged the transfer of part of the wage fund into special “people's shares”, which were distributed among the enterprise’s employees. All these government measures made it possible to ensure adequate growth in the purchasing power of the population in conditions of economic recovery. Germany was in the midst of a consumer boom.

In 1950, Germany became a member of the Council of Europe and began to take an active part in negotiations on European integration projects. In 1954, Germany became a member of the Western European Union, and in 1955 joined NATO. In 1957, Germany became one of the founders of the European Economic Community (EEC).

In the 60s, a regrouping of political forces took place in Germany. The FDP supported the SPD, and, having formed a new coalition, these two parties formed a government in 1969. This coalition lasted until the early 80s. During this period, the chancellors were the Social Democrats W. Brandt (1969-1974) and G. Schmidt (1974-1982).

A new political regrouping occurred in the early 80s. The FDP supported the CDU/CSU and left the coalition with the SPD. In 1982, Christian Democrat G. Kohl became chancellor (he held this post until 1998). He was destined to become chancellor of a united Germany.

German reunification

For forty post-war years, Germany was divided into two states by the Cold War front. The GDR was increasingly losing to West Germany in terms of economic growth and living standards. The symbol of the Cold War and the division of the German nation was the Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to prevent the citizens of the GDR from fleeing to the West.

In 1989, a revolution began in the GDR. The main demand of the participants in the revolutionary uprisings was the unification of Germany. In October 1989, the leader of the East German communists, E. Honecker, resigned, and on November 9, the Berlin Wall fell. The unification of Germany became a practically feasible task.

It was no longer possible to contain the process of German unification. But in the West and East of the country, different approaches to the future unification have been formed. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany provided for the reunification of Germany as the process of the annexation of the lands of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany and assumed the liquidation of the GDR as a state. The leadership of the GDR sought to achieve unification through a confederal union.

However, in the elections in March 1990, the GDR won the non-communist opposition led by the Christian Democrats. From the very beginning they advocated the speedy reunification of Germany on the basis of the Federal Republic of Germany. On June 1, the German mark was introduced into the GDR. On August 31, an agreement was signed between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the establishment of state unity.

All that remained was to agree on the unification of Germany with 4 states - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. For this purpose, negotiations were held according to the “2 + 4” formula, that is, between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, on the one hand, and the victorious powers (USSR, USA, Great Britain and France), on the other. The Soviet Union made a fundamentally important concession - it agreed to the continued membership of a united Germany in NATO and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from East Germany. On September 12, 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement regarding Germany was signed.

On October 3, 1990, 5 lands restored on the territory of East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, and the GDR ceased to exist. On December 20, 1990, the first Spilnonym government was formed, headed by Chancellor G. Kohl.

Economic and social achievements, problems of the 90s

Contrary to optimistic forecasts, the socio-economic consequences of German unification turned out to be ambiguous. The East Germans' hopes for the miraculous economic effect of unification were not justified. The main problem was the transfer of the command-administrative economy of the 5 eastern lands to the principles of a market economy. This process was carried out without strategic planning, through trial and error. The most “shocking” option for transforming the economy of East Germany was chosen. Its features include the introduction of private property, the decisive denationalization of state-owned enterprises, the short transition period to a market economy, etc. Moreover, East Germany received socio-economic and political forms organization of society immediately and in finished form.

Adaptation of the economy of the eastern lands to new conditions was quite painful and led to a reduction in industrial production in them to 1/3 of the previous level. The German economy emerged from the state of crisis caused by the unification of the country and negative trends in the world economy only in 1994. However, the structural restructuring of industry and adaptation to the new conditions of a market economy caused a sharp increase in unemployment. In the mid-90s it covered more than 12% work force(more than 4 million people). Most difficult situation employment situation in East Germany, where the unemployment rate exceeded 15% and the average wage significantly lagged behind the “old lands”. All this, as well as the influx of foreign workers, caused growing social tension in German society. In the summer of 1996, mass protests organized by trade unions broke out.

G. Kohl called for comprehensive savings. The government had to make an unprecedented increase in taxes, which amounted to more than half of total earnings, and a drastic reduction in government spending, including economic support for the eastern lands. All this, as well as G. Kohl’s course for further reduction social programs ultimately led to the defeat of the ruling conservative-liberal coalition in the next parliamentary elections.

Social Democrats coming to power

The 1998 elections brought victory to the new coalition, which was formed by the SPD (received 40.9% of the vote) and the Green Party (6.7%). Before officially joining the coalition, both parties developed a large, well-executed government program. It included measures to reduce unemployment, revise tax system, closure of 19 nuclear power plants, the remaining ones, etc.. The government of the “pink-green” coalition was headed by Social Democrat G. Schröder. In the context of the economic recovery that began, the policies of the new government turned out to be very effective. The new government did not abandon savings in government spending. But these savings were achieved not by curtailing state social programs, but mainly through land budgets.

The 1998 elections brought victory to the new coalition, which was formed by the SPD (received 40.9% of the vote) and the Green Party (6.7%). Before officially joining the coalition, both parties developed a large, well-executed government program. It included measures to reduce unemployment, revise the tax system, close 19 nuclear power plants, the remaining ones, etc. The government of the “pink-green” coalition was headed by Social Democrat G. Schröder. In the context of the economic recovery that began, the policies of the new government turned out to be very effective. The new government did not abandon savings in government spending. But these savings were achieved not by curtailing state social programs, but mainly through land budgets. In 1999, the government announced its intention to launch large-scale education reform to improve its effectiveness. Additional allocations began to be made for advanced scientific and technical research.

IN beginning of XXI century, Germany with its 80 million population became the largest state in Western Europe. In terms of industrial production and level of economic development, it ranks third in the world, second only to the USA and Japan.

Second World War, unleashed by the states of the aggressive bloc, brought enormous disasters to the German people. Germany ceased to exist independent state. It lost 1/4 of its pre-war territory and was divided into occupation zones. Issues affecting all of Germany were decided by the Control Council, consisting of four commanders-in-chief.
Production at the beginning of 1948 barely reached half the level of 1936. The standard of living of the population fell sharply. The Germans were saved from starvation by food supplies from the victorious countries. Germany suffered significant casualties. The population was demoralized by war and devastation. There were 12 million refugees in the country. Worn-out real capital, destroyed infrastructure, a undermined financial system, and a card system further complicated the economic and social status in Germany.
The allies in the anti-Hitler coalition, implementing the decisions of the Crimean and Potsdam conferences, pursued a policy of three “de”s: demilitarization, denazification, democratization. Conditions were created for the transformation of Germany into a peace-loving, democratic state. Banned by the Nazis were restored political parties And public organizations. The communists and social democrats were the first to emerge from underground. In April 1946, in the Soviet zone, as a result of the unification of the communist (KPD) and social democratic (SPD) parties, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) was formed.
In September 1948, the Parliamentary Council was convened. He drafted the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, which came into force on May 23, 1949. The Constitution proclaimed West Germany as a democratic, federal state and secured basic civil and political freedoms.
In August 1949, the CDU/CSU bloc won the elections to the Bundestag, forming a government coalition with the FDP. The government was headed by a prominent political figure - Christian Democrat Konrad Adenauer, who was Federal Chancellor for 14 years. On September 21, 1949, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was officially proclaimed. The capital of the country was the small resort town of Bonn.
In the eastern zone of occupation, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was created on October 7, 1949. Its capital is East Berlin. The split of Germany took place, which lasted 40 years.
In the 50s and 60s the economy developed rapidly. Minor military expenditures, generous American loans under the Marshall Plan, widespread use of cheap foreign labor, supplies of the latest equipment, and a high share of savings in the national income contributed to the accelerated revival of the country's economy. From 1950 to 1964, the gross national product doubled. Various branches of mechanical engineering, electricity production, chemical and metallurgical industries developed at the highest rates. Profound qualitative changes in the economy also occurred under the influence of the unfolding scientific and technological revolution.
Successes in economic development have made it possible to quickly increase export potential. About half of all products produced went to the European and world markets. Germany paid off its debts and created significant gold and foreign exchange reserves. The West German mark has become one of the most reliable currencies in the world.
Financial and credit regulation played a major role in the recovery and development of the economy. First post-war years the government provided assistance in restoring large monopolies, providing for concerns labor force. This, in turn, caused the expansion of housing construction and the rapid growth of direct government investment associated with the restoration of the housing stock destroyed by the war. Since the beginning of the 50s, the share of indirect public investments in the structure of capital investments has increased. The main emphasis was on supporting basic industries through government loans and subsidies. In the 1960s, government investment increased in the form of direct investment in science and education.
Significant allocations for infrastructure contributed to the acceleration of economic growth and qualitative development social sphere. The standard of living of the population grew rapidly.
The successes of socio-economic development were based on liberal market policies, at the origins of which was the Minister of Economics L. Erhard, who later became Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. The economic reform he developed was carried out under the slogan “welfare for all.” It helped relieve social tension in the country. The involvement of workers in production management also played an important role in this.
Back in 1951 In Germany, in the specific post-war conditions, a law on “participation in decision-making” was issued. It applied only to enterprises with more than 1 thousand employees in the coal and metallurgical industries. These sectors were especially important for the initial stage of economic recovery. In 1976, the Federal Republic of Germany adopted new law on complicity, which applies to all industries (except coal and ferrous metallurgy) and all companies with more than 2 thousand employees.
A lower level of participation in Germany includes the activities of works councils, which were elected at all enterprises with at least 5 employees. The Council had advisory powers.
In conditions of economic progress and relative class peace, political radicalism ceased to be a noticeable phenomenon. In 1956, the German Communist Party was banned. Created in 1968, the KKE never became an influential force. Attempts by revanchist forces to create a mass right-wing nationalist party were also unsuccessful. IN political life dominated by the CDU/CSU, SPD and FDP, which by the end of the 60s occupied almost identical positions on major issues domestic policy and supported the idea of ​​developing a welfare state. This contributed to the strengthening of political consensus, a clear manifestation of which was the existence in 1966–1969 of a “grand” ruling coalition of the CDU/CSU and the SPD.
In foreign policy Germany was guided by the leading countries of the West. During the Cold War, she became a member of the European Council. In 1954 it was allowed to have an army (Bundeswehr). In 1955, Germany became a member of NATO, then joined the EEC, where it began to play a leading role. Consistent Atlanticism in foreign policy gave Germany certain advantages, but was taken to the point of absurdity. Non-recognition of the countries of Eastern Europe, with which it was in close proximity, made Germany's diplomacy inflexible.
In 1969, 20 years after the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany, Social Democrat Willy Brandt (1913–1992), an outstanding political figure, became Federal Chancellor for the first time. teenage years participated in the social democratic movement. There have been changes in internal development. Social benefits have increased for a significant part of the population. New phenomena have emerged in political life. New mass movements emerged. The most significant movement was in defense environment, the green movement. Leftist organizations - anarchists, Maoists, neo-Trotskyists - have also become widespread.
Significant changes have occurred in the international activities of Germany. The government of V. Brandt developed and implemented the “new Eastern policy”. Post-war borders in Eastern Europe were recognized. In 1970, an agreement was signed with the Soviet Union. Germany has pledged to treat existing borders as inviolable. Similar agreements were signed with Poland and Czechoslovakia. Interstate relations were established with the GDR. Mutual recognition of the German states opened the way for them to join the UN.
In the early 1980s, a new regrouping of political forces took place. The FDP supported the CDU/CSU and left the coalition with the SPD. In 1982, Christian Democrat Helmut Kohl became Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. The SPD found itself in opposition. On May 4, 1983, Chancellor Helmet Kohl made a government statement in which he outlined 7 theses, or the conservative program for the near future: 1) personal freedom, creative work, prosperity for all and social confidence must be achieved through the spirit and strength of the social market economy ; 2) we want a society with human face; 3) for formation modern society keeping pace with scientific and technological progress; 4) return the state to the essence of its tasks - to stand guard over justice and monitor the fulfillment of the duties of citizens; 5) we belong to the West; 6) for the political union of Europe; 7) the German nation continues to exist, it is necessary to achieve German unity. The government of G. Kohl began to implement measures similar to those that M. Thatcher had already begun to carry out in Great Britain and R. Reagan in the USA. Taxes were cut and government spending was streamlined, measures were taken to reduce government regulation of business and to stimulate competition. The economic recovery that began helped consolidate the positions of the ruling coalition in the elections to the Bundestag in 1983 and 1987.
In December 1987, the government adopted a special economic stimulus program for 1988–1990. It included a significant reduction in income tax and corporate tax, stimulating investment activity. It was planned to allocate preferential loans in the amount of 21 billion marks. These funds were intended for urban reconstruction and environmental protection. For the purpose of subsidizing loan rates, 200 million marks were allocated from the state budget annually. The government hoped that new program will stimulate investment totaling approximately 40 billion marks.
In 1989, a revolution began in the GDR. Democracy was restored. On November 9, after the forced resignation of E. Honecker and his government, the Berlin Wall was destroyed. Negotiations on the unification of both parts of Germany were successfully completed. On October 3, 1990, the formation of a unified German state was proclaimed. In early elections to the Bundestag in December 1990, the ruling coalition again won.
1990 was a special year for Germany. The unification of the two Germanys acutely raised the problem of overcoming the backwardness of the former GDR.
Market reforms in the Eastern part of Germany were financed mainly at the expense of the Western part. In 1990 - 1992, the transfer of funds from West to East Germany exceeded 200 billion marks. In 1994, Germany held elections at all levels. The coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals remained in power. Since 1982, a liberal-conservative political course has been implemented. The SPD remained the leading opposition party. "Union 90/Greens" improved its position. Right-wing extremists have once again found themselves outside of political life. The results of the 1994 elections once again proved the stability of the party- political system Germany and refuted some political science forecasts about the crisis of “party democracy”.
Despite the fact that the pace of economic development in 1992–1995 is not as high as before, Germany is one of the leading economic powers in the world. The country has a strong state social policy. Citizens of Germany feel quite protected. However, they are concerned about high, persistent unemployment. In January 1997, the number of unemployed in Germany reached 4.7 million people, which amounted to 11.3% of the working population. This is a record unemployment rate in the history of Germany.
On September 27, 1998, the next parliamentary elections were held in Germany. The SPD won. The main slogan of the Election campaign is “renewal and justice.” The Union 90/Greens party came out in alliance with the SPD and a “red-green” coalition government was formed.
The government of Gerhard Schröder is carrying out deep reforms of the economy and social sphere: creating the most favorable conditions for enterprises, supporting small and medium-sized businesses, which leads to a reduction in unemployment. The financial system is being restructured, reform of the pension system has begun, and health and social insurance is being restructured.
At the turn of the century, Germany achieved tangible results in socio-economic and scientific and technological development. Germany has the most powerful economic potential in Europe and ranks third in the world after the United States and Japan in terms of GDP.
There is evidence that Germany is making progress socially and culturally. All this creates a new quality of life that meets the challenges of the 21st century.

Capital:East Berlin

Largest cities: East Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig

Language: German

Currency unit: GDR stamp

Square : 108333km 2

Population: 16675 million people

Form of government :one-party socialist republic

The German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) is a now defunct socialist state located in Central Europe, founded on October 7, 1949 in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany and the eastern sector of Berlin. The republic officially ceased to exist and was united with GermanyOctober 3, 1990.

Chronology of GDR dates

Creation of the GDR

The Soviet government transferred control functions that belonged to the Soviet military administration to the GDR. In 1949, the USSR, China, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, DPRK and MPR recognized the GDR, establishing diplomatic relations with it; in 1957, Yugoslavia established diplomatic relations with the GDR, and in 1963, Cuba.

Socialist transformations

The formation of the GDR was a decisive milestone in the process of the peaceful and gradual development of the anti-fascist-democratic revolution into a socialist one.

With the emergence of the GDR, along with the strengthening of the anti-fascist-democratic order, the process of creating the foundations of socialism began. Under the leadership of the SED, the working class, in alliance with the peasantry and other sections of the working people, made the transition from anti-fascist-democratic state power to worker-peasant power as a form of dictatorship of the proletariat; the 2nd SED Conference (July 1952) proclaimed building the foundations of socialism the main task of the GDR. In building a new society, the GDR relied on the experience and comprehensive assistance of the USSR.

The GDR had to overcome difficulties associated primarily with the split of the country. The ruling circles of the Federal Republic of Germany exercised the strongest political and economic pressure on the GDR, carried out subversive activities against it and organized numerous provocations. Also, the development of the country was hampered by the dangerous enemy within- many former Social Democrats who found themselves in the party as a result of the unification of the SPD and KPD wanted only one thing - the speedy restoration of bourgeois order in the country. It was they who played a decisive role in the destruction of the GDR.Measures were taken to improve the work of government bodies and to involve the broad masses of workers in government management.

In an effort to ensure its state interests, as well as the security of other socialist countries and to stop subversive activities carried out from West Berlin, the GDR, in agreement and with the approval of the Warsaw Pact states, carried out in August 1961 the necessary measures to strengthen security and control on the border with West Berlin . This had a beneficial effect on the entire further development of the GDR.In the context of the immediate danger to the GDR created by the remilitarization of the Federal Republic of Germany, the workers of the GDR resolutely advocated taking measures to protect socialist gains. For this purpose, the National People's Army was formed in 1956..

The leadership of the GDR, despite the “Halstein Doctrine,” sought to achieve international legal recognition of its state through foreign policy activity. It tried to overcome the diplomatic blockade imposed by Germany. That is why the SPD proposed the idea of ​​a “new Ostpolitik”establishing, first of all, trade, economic and consular relations with developing countries.

Industry

The eastern regions of Germany, which became part of the GDR, were less industrially developed than the western ones, and suffered more during the war. In this regard, in the GDR it was necessary to re-create whole line industries. The nationalization of large industrial enterprises made it possible to move to planned economic management. As a result of the implementation of two-year (1949-1951) and five-year (1951-1955) plans, old industrial enterprises were restored and expanded, metallurgical plants were built based on raw materials imported from the USSR and other socialist countries.

In 1962, industrial production increased 3.6 times compared to production in these areas in 1936. In terms of industrial production, the GDR ranked fifth in Europe and tenth in the world. The pace of development of the GDR is ahead of the Federal Republic of Germany. The bulk of production (up to 90%) comes from the socialist sector of the economy. Over the years of its existence, the GDR turned into a developed industrial state of the socialist type.

Among the socialist countries, the GDR is one of the largest suppliers of equipment, which goes primarily to the countries of Asia and Africa, which have taken the path of independent development. According to the developed seven-year economic development plan (1959-1965), further development of heavy industry and an increase in material and cultural level the lives of workers.

By 1961 it became clear that everything more people they don’t want to build a socialist bright future, border crossings have become more frequent. The young people, the future of the country, were leaving. In July alone, about 200 thousand people left the GDR across the border with West Berlin. ANDRThe leadership of the GDR, supported by the Warsaw Pact countries, decided to strengthen the country's state border with West Berlin.

August 13, 1961, on the recommendation of a meeting of secretaries of communist and workers' parties of the Warsaw Pact countriesand based on the decision of the People's Chamber of the GDRwas erected Berlin Wall.

However, the construction of the rampart did not prevent further emigration from East German territory. People made their way through rivers and made tunnels. On average (before the construction of the fence), about half a million people traveled from the GDR to the Federal Republic of Germany every day for various reasons. And in the twenty-eight years since the wall was built, only 5,075 successful illegal crossings have been made. For this, waterways, tunnels (145 meters underground), Balloons and hang gliders, battering rams in the form of cars and bulldozers, even moved along a rope between buildings.

It was interesting next feature. People received free education in the socialist part of Germany, and started working in Germany, because there were higher salaries.

Plan:

p.

I. Introduction (introductory article)................................................... .........3

II. General information about the country:

1) geographical position................................................ ............3

2) federal structure of the country................................................... .4

3) federal states........................................................ ...........................6

4) peculiarities population........................................................ .................8

III. Chronicle of unification (1989 – 1991) ........................................11

IV. Modern politics states:

1) Foreign policy................................................ ............................13

2) The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany is the Constitution.................................................... .14

3) Parliament of the Federal Republic of Germany................................................... ................................14

4) Security policy................................................ ..................16

V. A country's economy:

1) social market economy: a reliable model....................................17

2) Agriculture................................................ ...........................19

3) Industry................................................. ............................20

4) Transport................................................. ........................................22

5) International trade................................................ ...............................24

6) Environment................................................ ...........................25

VI. Bundeswehr - armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany .....................................26

VII . Economy and culture of the federal states ..............................27

VIII. Churches and religious communities ..................................................41

IX. Conclusion .......................................................................................43

X. List of references ................................................44

I .Introduction

Germany- an industrial country, a country with many industrial agglomerations, large and small cities. But this does not mean at all that life here is full of bustle, that all around are factories and factories, smoking chimneys and roads clogged to capacity. Of course, high-voltage transmission lines often spoil the landscape with their appearance; on the other hand, they deliver electricity even to the most remote corners of the country. Many areas

Germany is characterized by peace and quiet, an abundance of picturesque hills and river landscapes, and most importantly, forests. One cannot fail to mention the cultural life, which is mainly concentrated in major cities x with their countless theaters, concert halls and museums, but does not bypass the provinces.

II .General information about the country.

1) Geographical location:

The Federal Republic of Germany is located in the center of Europe. It is bordered by nine neighboring countries: Denmark to the north, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France to the west, Switzerland and Austria to the south, and the Czech Republic and Poland to the east. This central position emerges even more clearly now, after the restoration of German unity on October 3, 1990. The Federal Republic of Germany is more than ever a hub between East and West, as well as between Scandinavia and the Mediterranean region. As a member of the European Community and NATO, Germany serves as a link with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The territory of Germany is 357,000 sq. km. The greatest length from north to south is 876 km, from west to east - 640 km. The extreme points of the borders are: in the north - the village of List on the island of Sylt, in the east - the Saxon village of Deshka, in the south - the Bavarian village of Oberstdorf and in the west - the village of Selfkant (North Rhine-Westphalia). The total length of the borders is 3767 km. The population of Germany is about 80 million people. After Russia, Germany is the most populated state in Europe, followed by Italy - 58, Great Britain - 57 and France - 56 million inhabitants. However, in terms of territory, Germany is smaller than France (552,000 sq. km) and Spain (505,000 sq. km).

German landscapes are extremely varied and attractive. Low and high mountain ranges intersperse with plateaus, stepped terrain, hilly, mountainous and lake lands, and wide, open plains. From north to south, Germany is divided into five landscape zones: the North German Lowland, the mid-mountain threshold, the South-West German mid-mountain folded basement, the South German pre-alpine plateau and the Bavarian Alps. The lowlands in the north are characterized by lake-rich, hilly guest and clayey plateaus with heaths and peat bogs, but also with fertile soils south of the mid-mountain threshold: these basins include the Lower Rhine, Westphalian and Saxon-Thuringian. In the north, the North Sea marches extend to the outskirts of the guest house. In Schleswig-Holstein, the Baltic coast is indented by fjords, while in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern estuary and leveled shores predominate. The most important islands in the North Sea include the East Frisian Islands: Borkum or Norderney, the North Frisian Islands: Amrum, Föhr, Sylt and Galligen, as well as Heligoland in the German Bight, and in the Baltic Sea - Rügen, Hiddensee and Fehmarn. On the Baltic coast there are both gently sloping sandy and rocky steep shores. Between the North and Baltic Seas lies the "Switzerland of Holstein" - a low-lying, hilly area. The mid-mountain threshold separates the north of Germany from the south, and the middle Rhine valley and the Hessian basins serve as natural markers in the transport system linking the north with the south. The Middle Mountains include, in particular, the Rhine Slate massif with the Hunsrück, Eifel, Taunus, Westerwald, Bergisches Land and Sauerland ridges, the Hessian Bergland, the Weser und Leinebergland in the west and center of Germany. In the center of the country is the island mountain range of the Harz. To the east are the Rhön Mountains, the Bavarian Forest, the Upper Palatinate Forest, the Fichtel Mountains, the Franconian Forest, the Thuringian Forest and the Ore Mountains. The Southwestern German Middle Mountains include the Upper Rhine Plateau with the outlying mountain ranges of the Black Forest, Odenwald and Spessart, the Palatinate Mountains with the Hardt and the Swabian-Franconian Jura with the Alb. (see diagram No. 1)

The Rhine, the country's largest transport artery, winds its way from north to south through the narrow valley between Bingen and Bonn, through the Rhine Slate, whose less fertile plateaus and mountain ranges are much less populated than the sheltered valley landscapes along the right and left banks of the Rhine with their viticulture and foreign tourism. The South German Alpine foothills cover the Swabian-Bavarian plateau with its hills and large lakes in the south, as well as the gravelly plains, the Lower Bavarian hills and the Danube lowlands. This area is characterized by peat bogs, chains of domed hills with lakes (Chim See, Lake Starnberg) and small villages. The German Alps between Lake Constance and Berchtesgaden cover only a narrow part of these mountains: they are limited only by the Allgäu, Bavarian and Berchtesgaden Alps. There are many picturesque lakes surrounded by alpine peaks, such as König See near Berchtesgaden, as well as popular tourist destinations, such as Garmisch-Partenkirchen or Mittenwald.

Climatically, Germany is located in the zone of influence of moderately cool westerly winds between the mild climate zones of the Atlantic Ocean and the continental climate in the east. Large temperature fluctuations are rare. Precipitation occurs at all times of the year. In winter, the average temperature ranges from 1.5 degrees Celsius in the lowlands to minus 6 degrees Celsius in the mountains. July averages: 18 degrees Celsius in the lowlands and 20 degrees in the sheltered valleys of the south. Exceptions are the upper Rhine-Graben with its very mild climate, Upper Bavaria, where the foehn regularly blows from the south, a warm alpine wind, and, as a separate climatic zone, the Harz with its harsh winds, cool summers and snowy winters.

2) Federal structure of the country

The Federal Republic of Germany is a state structured on a federal principle. The 16 federal states therefore have their own statehood with all sovereign rights and competencies. This means: everything that needs to be arranged and regulated in the general interests falls within the competence of the federation. All other matters are the responsibility of the lands. The consequence of the federal structure is that the citizen does not oppose a single, indivisible, and therefore omnipotent, central state power.

The purpose of a federal order is to prevent excessive concentration of power. The distribution of competence also means the distribution of power. The participation of the population in political decisions is also greater, since there are many political bodies in a limited area.

Federal government system contains special chances for the opposition in the federation. If the opposition puts in place several or even a majority of land governments, and this has almost always been the case since 1949, then it (the opposition) had the opportunity to implement its ideas and responsibly carry out state functions both within certain lands and within the entire state Federal Republic of Germany, influencing legislation and governance through the Bundesrat (house of states).

The competence of 16 states includes legislation and management in the field of culture and education. In their hands are the police, communal law, land planning, regulation and construction law, road and water law. The legislative rights of the Länder arise from the Basic Law, which states that the Länder have the right to legislation in cases where it does not fall within the legislative competence of the federation.

A further basis is Articles 70-91 of the Basic Law, which describe the division of legislative powers between the federation and the states. The Länder are granted legislative competence in areas that are not mentioned at all in the Constitution, as well as in areas where the federation does not exercise its powers.

All Länder have parliaments elected for terms of four to five years. The 16 Länder parliaments have varying numbers of deputies. Parliaments have different names - Landtag, Citizens' Assembly, Chamber of Deputies. Most parliaments can dissolve themselves based on a decision by a majority vote. Organizationally, land parliaments are similar to the structure of the German Bundestag: presidium, factions, commissions, etc. Often, states have a need to regulate issues that fall within their competence according to the same principles. In these cases, the state parliaments develop sample bills in the Bundesrat (house of states).

Parliaments elect the prime minister of the state, and in the city-republics of Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen, the ruling or first burgomaster. Governments consist - and here is a similarity with the federal government - of the head of government and ministers responsible for a certain range of responsibilities. In city-republics, ministers are called senators. The task of these governments is primarily to develop land bills and implement laws after their approval by the land parliaments. However, state governments are also responsible for implementing federal laws, such as in the field of taxation.

The second legislative body, along with the German Bundestag, is the Bundesrat (Chamber of Lands). Through the Bundesrat, the 16 states participate in the development of legislation and in the administration of the federation. Depending on the size of the state, governments currently delegate from three to six representatives to the Bundesrat. If the opposition constitutes a majority in the Bundesrat, then it can, of course, have a greater influence on the legislation of the federation. The presidency of the Bundesrat, assumed by the head of the state government, rotates on an annual basis, so that all prime ministers appear in this position.

The communes perform most of the tasks of the federal and state governments. Communal people's representatives at the level of communities and districts are to some extent even endowed with legislative functions, since, firstly, they develop charters on which the work of the municipal administration is based, and secondly, deputies to the parliaments of communes are elected democratically. The tasks of the communes include making decisions on the development and use of areas, the construction and maintenance of communal roads, sanitation, sewerage, public transport and supplies, the construction and maintenance of social and sports institutions, theaters, museums, libraries, as well as other cultural and educational centers consisting of their budget. Not least of all, this includes decisions on the amount of tariffs, fees and taxes.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Area - 356,957 sq. km

Population - 79.7 million people.

Capital - Berlin

Seat of government - for now Bonn, later Berlin

Ruling parties - CDU/CSU and FDP

Population density - 222 people/km8

Foreign citizens - 5.04 million people.

The share of foreign citizens among the population of the federation is 6.4%

3) FEDERAL LAND

The Federal Republic of Germany consists of 16 federal states. Eleven states of the old Federal Republic of Germany were recreated or newly created after 1945. After the peaceful revolution in the GDR, new federal states were created there on October 3, 1990. Since then they have been part of the republic.

The Federal Republic of Germany consists of 16 states (capitals in brackets): Baden-Württemberg (Stuttgart), Bavaria (Munich), Berlin, Brandenburg (Potsdam), Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse (Wiesbaden), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Schwerin), Lower Saxony (Hannover), North Rhine-Westphalia (Dusseldorf), Rhineland-Palatinate (Mainz), Saarland (Saarbrücken), Saxony (Dresden), Saxony-Anhalt (Magdeburg), Schleswig-Holstein (Kiel) and Thuringia (Erfurt). Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg are city-states.

Federal states are not provinces, but states with their own state power. They have their own constitutions, but these constitutions must comply with the principles of a republican, democratic and social rule of law state in the spirit of the Basic Law. In all other respects, the states are free to formulate their own constitutions. The principle of the federal state is one of the immutable principles of the constitution. However, the composition of today's lands is not unchanged. For the new administrative division of the territory of the federation, the Basic Law provides for the corresponding rules. The federal system has a great constitutional tradition, which was interrupted only by the unitary state of the National Socialists in 1933-1945. Germany is considered a classic country of federalist statehood. Federalism has justified itself: under it, the characteristics and problems of the regions are taken into account much better than under the centralized power of the government.

Benefits of Federalism

German federalism links external unity and internal diversity, similar to, for example, the case in the USA or Switzerland. Preserving regional diversity is a traditional task of federalism. This feature is available today new essence in connection with such regional requirements as the protection of monuments, the preservation of urban planning traditions and the development of regional culture. First of all, a federal state must ensure freedom. The distribution of tasks between the federation and the states is an essential element in the system of separation and balancing of powers provided for in the Basic Law. This includes the participation of the states in the formation of political will at the federal level, namely through the Bundesrat.

A federal state also strengthens the democratic principle. It provides political activity citizens on the ground. Democracy becomes more active if it is in their familiar sphere of federal land that citizens influence political process by participating in elections and voting. The federal system has other advantages, such as the possibility of experimentation in a narrow area and competition of lands. Thus, an individual state can try new things and create models for reforms throughout the federation, for example in the field of education.

In addition, the federal structure better takes into account the different majority relationships in the regions. Opposition parties at the federal level can have a majority in the Länder and thus assume responsibility as a government.

Competence of the Länder

The Basic Law defines the competence of the federation depending on whether the regulations should be uniform for all Länder or whether it is desirable to leave the Länder with their own constitutional sphere. This is clearly seen in the division of the federation's competence into exclusive, competing and framework legislation. Legislation falling exclusively within the competence of the federation includes, for example, relations with foreign states, defense issues, currency, monetary and coinage systems, railways, air traffic and parts of tax legislation. In the area of ​​competing legislation, the Länder only have legislative power if the federation has not regulated the same subjects by law. The federation is allowed to do this only when there is a special need for a unified settlement for the federation. Areas of competing legislation include, in particular, civil and criminal law, economic and nuclear law, labor and land law. Then legislation in matters of foreign citizens, housing, shipping and traffic, waste disposal, air quality control and noise control. Constitutional practice has shown that it is necessary to have uniform rules on these topics. In practice, this is no longer in the legislative power of the states.

Within the framework of the federation, individual legislative areas are the responsibility of the Länder. This includes, for example, higher education, nature and landscape protection, terrain planning and water balance. A number of other interregional, future-oriented tasks that are not listed in the Basic Law are today also planned, legitimized and financed jointly by the federation and the states. In 1969, they were included in the Basic Law as “General Objectives” and concern the expansion of existing and construction of new universities, improvement of the regional economic structure, as well as the agrarian structure and coastal protection.

Elections to all popular representations are general, direct, free, equal and secret. Every German over the age of 16 has the right to vote. There are no primary elections; candidates for election are nominated by parties.

Electoral system

The electoral system of the German Bundestag is a "system proportional elections with a focus on individual figures." Each voter has two votes. He gives the first vote to the candidate of his constituency, namely by relative majoritarian system elections: the one with the most votes is elected (first votes). With his second vote, he influences the passage of deputies to the Bundestag according to the so-called state lists of parties (second votes).

The composition of the Bundestag as a result of the counting of votes for individual electoral districts and state lists almost corresponds to the ratio of the shares of votes received by individual parties. If a party receives more direct mandates in electoral districts than it is entitled to based on its share of the vote, it retains these “super mandates.” In such cases, the Bundestag has more than 656 members, as provided by law.

The purpose of land list elections is to represent all parties in parliament according to their share of the vote. On the other hand, direct elections in a constituency provide citizens with the opportunity to cast their vote for a specific politician.

As a rule, the population greets elections with great interest. In the elections to the Bundestag in 1990. 77.8% of voters took part. In elections to Landtags and municipalities, the number of voters fluctuates, but for the most part it is around 70%.

Parties

In modern democracy, competing parties have constitutional significance. Elected for a specific term, they perform political leadership and control functions. Parties play a significant role in policy formation. This is taken into account in the Basic Law, which devotes a separate article to parties (Article 21). It establishes: “Parties participate in the formation of the political will of the people. They are founded freely, their internal structure must meet democratic principles. They report to the public about the sources of their funds.”

Parties in the Bundestag

After the first all-German elections in 1990, six parties entered the German Bundestag: the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU), the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the Free Democratic Party (FDP), the Christian Social Union (CSU), the Democratic Party socialism (PDS) and the Union 90/Greens group, united by one list.

The CDU does not have a state union in Bavaria, while the CSU operates only in Bavaria, but in the Bundestag the CDU and CSU are united into one faction. The creation of the SPD, CDU, CSU and FDP in the western states of Germany occurred in 1945-1947.

Founding of the SPD - re-founding of the party of the same name, previously elected mainly by employees, which was banned by the Hitler regime in 1933. The remaining parties are new. The Christian parties CDU and CSU - in contrast to the old Catholic party of the center of the Weimar Republic - tried to win voters of both Christian denominations. With its programmatic approach, the FDP continued the traditions of German liberalism.

These four parties have undergone significant changes in the more than four decades since their founding. At the federal level, all of them during this time entered into a coalition with each other or were in opposition. Today they consider themselves people's parties, representing all segments of the population. They have distinct right and left wings, reflecting the diverse positions of the people's party.

From 1983 to 1990 The Green Party also entered the Bundestag. At the federal level, this party was founded in 1979. Since then, it has managed to occupy seats in several state parliaments. The party, which unites opponents of nuclear energy and pacifist groups, owes its origins to the radical environmental movement. In the Bundestag elections in 1990, the Greens did not achieve the passing five percent. But the representatives of Union 90, united with them on one list, got into the Bundestag. This group came out of the human rights movement, which in 1989-1990. contributed to the peaceful coup in the former GDR. The parties "Union 90" and "Greens" merged on May 14, 1993 into one party called "Union 90/Greens".

The PDS is the successor to the former government party of the GDR, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In united Germany, it failed to form into a major political force. The PDS - like the joint list of Union 90/Greens - entered the Bundestag only due to a special situation for parties in the new federal states: the five percent clause applies separately in the new and old states.

4) Features of the population

More than 80 million people live in Germany (including 6.5 million foreigners), and in terms of population density - 224 people per square kilometer - Germany is one of the most populated countries in Europe. Only Belgium and Holland have higher population densities. The population is distributed very unevenly throughout Germany. In Berlin, an area of ​​great concentration, the population has grown rapidly since unification - Berlin now has 3.4 million inhabitants - and is expected to reach eight million by the end of the millennium. The industrial areas on the Rhine and Ruhr, where one city seamlessly merges with the other, are home to over four million people - approximately 5,500 people per square kilometer. Other areas of the industrial urban agglomeration are the Rhine-Main region with the cities of Frankfurt, Wiesbaden and Mainz, the industrial region Rhine-Neckar with the cities of Mannheim and Ludwigshafen, the economic region around Stuttgart, as well as the economic regions of Bremen, Dresden, Hamburg, Cologne, Leipzig, Munich and Nuremberg/Fürth. These densely populated regions are contrasted by very sparsely populated areas, areas of heath and peat bogs in the North German Lowlands, the Eifel region, the Bavarian Forest, the Upper Palatinate, the state of Brandenburg and the vast expanses of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The population density in western Germany is significantly higher than in the five new federal states in the east. Almost 30% of the area is home to only a fifth (16 million) of the country's population. In the eastern part of Germany there are four of the 20 cities with a population of over 300,000 people. Almost every third resident of the republic lives in one of the 85 large cities (over 100,000 inhabitants). This is about 26 million people. The overwhelming majority, on the contrary, live in villages and small towns: over seven million live in towns with a population of up to 2,000 people, 46 million live in communities with a population of 2,000-100,000 people (see diagram No. 2).

The population in the old and new lands has been decreasing since the beginning of the seventies due to a decrease in the birth rate. But since 1990, in the old lands there has been a slight increase again (see diagram No. 3). However, in terms of the birth rate - eleven per 1,000 inhabitants per year (old states) - Germany is one of the countries with the lowest birth rate. Population growth after World War II was driven primarily by emigrants. About 13 million Germans, expelled and refugees from the former East German provinces and Eastern Europe, arrived on the territory of today's Germany. Big flow refugees from East Germany to West Germany was observed until the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and the complete isolation of the former GDR. Since the early sixties, foreign workers came in large numbers to the old lands of the republic, which were experiencing economic expansion and where there was an acute labor shortage.

Regional differences

During the last thousand years, the Germanic people were formed mainly from various Germanic tribes: Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians. Now these ancient tribes in their original form are long gone, but their traditions and dialects can still be found in historically regional groups. In any case, the ancient tribes can hardly be identified with the population of individual federal lands. The lands in the form in which they are presented today were created, for the most part, after the Second World War with the participation of the occupying authorities, and traditions were not taken into account when drawing boundaries. In addition, refugee flows and large migrations post-war period, as well as the mobility of modern industrial society more or less blurred the boundaries between different groups of the population. Remain distinctive features, which are endowed separate groups population. Thus, the Mecklenburgers are considered reserved, the Swabians - stingy, the inhabitants of the Rhinelands - cheerful, and the Saxons - hardworking and resourceful. This list could be continued. Therefore, in the final analysis, only general signs of behavior inherent in a particular group are characteristic.

German

German language belongs to large group Indo-Germanic languages, and within its framework to the Germanic languages, and is related to the Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages, with Dutch and Flemish, as well as with English language. Formation of common literary language falls during the period of translation of the Bible by Martin Luther. Germany is rich in dialects. Most Germans can tell by their dialect and accent what area they are from. If, for example, a Frisian, a Mecklenburger and a Bavarian were talking to each other, each in his own dialect, they would only understand each other with difficulty. In addition, during the period of the split of Germany in both German states, different reserves were developed political concepts, new words also appeared that needed explanation in each of the states, respectively. But the basic vocabulary and grammar remained the same in the West and East. The commonality of language was one of the ties that united the divided nation. Outside Germany German native and in areas along its borders: in Austria, in Liechtenstein, in most of Switzerland, in South Tyrol (Northern Italy) and in small regions in Belgium, France (Alsace) and Luxembourg. And German minorities in Poland, Romania and the countries of the former Soviet Union partially retained the German language.

German - native language for more than 100 million people. Almost every tenth book published in the world is written in German. Among the languages ​​from which translations are made, German ranks third after English and French, and German is the language into which the most translations are made.

Foreign fellow citizens

Germany is a welcoming country towards foreigners. This assessment of Chancellor He. Kohl, which he rightfully adhered to and adheres to to this day, is confirmed by statistics. Of the more than eighty million residents of the republic, six and a half million are foreigners. They all willingly came to Germany and stayed here. For decades, living together did not pose a problem, although the circle of the first guest workers, who were Italians, was replenished first by Spaniards and Portuguese, and then by Yugoslavs and Turks. The aggravations that sometimes occurred in everyday life were greatly compensated by collegiality, good neighborliness and friendship. The merger of the EU and the West, the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, as well as migration from Asian and African countries led to a significant increase in the number of foreigners of different skin colors in Germany, of course, more in the West than in the East, where the GDR pursued a restrictive policy in this regard. Turks have long been the most large group among foreigners, numbering 1.855 million people. It is followed by people from the states of the collapsed Yugoslavia, the number of which is given only as an estimate due to the numerous war refugees willingly accepted: about a million. The next communities are 558,000 Italians, 346,000 Greeks, 286,000 Poles, 185,000 Austrians, 167,000 Romanians and 134,000 Spaniards. From 100,000 to 115,000 people there are Iranians, Portuguese, British, Americans and Dutch. The 61,000 people from the former Soviet Union are perceived by foreigners more in the eastern lands than in the western ones. Almost 60 percent of foreigners have lived in Germany for ten years or more. More than two thirds of the children of foreigners were born here.

The Federal Republic of Germany has proven its openness not only by accepting workers, their relatives, asylum seekers and war refugees, but has always been a champion of the rights of free movement and residence everywhere, freedom of choice of profession and place of residence in the European Community. Germany is open to people persecuted for political reasons like no other country in the world. New edition Article 16a of the Basic Law, to the same extent as the former Article 16, guarantees protection from political persecution in the form of a personal fundamental right. Thus, in 1992, Germany alone accepted almost 80 percent of all asylum seekers in the entire European Community. For example, back in 1989, 121,318 foreigners asked for asylum in Germany, in 1991 - 256,112 people, and in 1992 their number increased to 438,191 people. At the same time, the quota of those who were actually persecuted for political reasons fell below five percent. A constitutional change (the “asylum compromise”), adopted by two-thirds of Parliament and in force since July 1, 1993, returned the right of asylum - as is customary in other countries - to its proper function, namely the protection of those currently persecuted for political reasons and really needs protection. Therefore, foreigners arriving from a safe third country can no longer invoke this fundamental right in Germany.

Regardless of the Vienna Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, Germany also reserves the right to identify states in which, according to official recognition, there is no political persecution and therefore, as a rule, there are no grounds for an application for asylum. But every asylum seeker has a legal path in Germany, up to and including appealing to the Federal Constitutional Court.

There are only two national minorities in Germany that have lived in their respective settlement areas for centuries. This includes approximately 100 thousand Lusatian Sorbs. They are descendants of the Slavic ethnic group and live in Lausitz (Brandenburg and Saxony). The northern part of Schleswig-Golythein is home to a Danish minority. It numbers about 50 thousand people. These populations are free to develop their own language and culture. The “Great Danes” also have their own political representation - the South Schleswig Voters' Union, which is represented in the municipal parliaments and has always had a parliamentary seat in the Schleswig-Holstein state parliament.

III . CHRONICLE OF THE ASSOCIATION (1989 – 1991)

Germany has always been divided into lands, but for centuries geographic map changed often. The most important recent changes were a consequence of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and the First and Second World Wars. As a result of the latter, Germany was occupied and divided, Prussia, the most large land Germany, liquidated. The federal states in their current form were mostly created after 1945, and their creation was carried out taking into account the affiliation of fraternities with each other and the historical formation of borders.

Before unification, Germany included eleven states, which were created in the former western occupation zones and in the period 1946-1957. introduced democratic constitutions.

In the Soviet occupation zone, in what was later called the GDR, five states were created, partly taking into account old state traditions, but already in 1952 the GDR government abolished this structure and introduced a centralist administrative control. And until 1991, there were two Germanys on the political map of the world (FRG and GDR), but taking into account modern trends, the collapse social system, the collapse of the Northern Union, the historic reunification of Germany took place.

August 1989:

The flow of East German citizens seeking asylum at the embassies of the Federal Republic of Germany in Budapest, Prague and Warsaw is constantly growing. It is believed that the number of people wishing to leave the GDR is one million.

Hungary opens its border with Austria. GDR citizens staying in Hungary can leave the country in the direction of the Federal Republic of Germany. In three days, 15,000 GDR citizens arrive in western Germany. The flow of refugees arriving through Hungary continues to grow steadily.

With rejoicing, the citizens of the GDR. who have taken refuge in the embassies of the Federal Republic of Germany in Prague and Warsaw, are greeted with the news that they can freely travel to the Federal Republic of Germany.

September/October 1989:

In the GDR, demonstrations against the ruling regime are increasingly taking place. The so-called “Monday demonstrations”, which meet once a week in Leipzig, are becoming more and more numerous.

About a million residents of eastern Berlin demonstrate for free elections and respect for human rights.

Checkpoints of the Berlin Wall, which divided the city for many years, namely since August 13, 1961, are opening for residents of the GDR.

Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl arrives in Dresden.

The Brandenburg Gate opens - a symbol of unity. The border between both German states soon opens.

In the first free and secret elections of the people's representation of the GDR, the Alliance for Germany wins, in which the Christian Democratic Union is the determining political force.

Lothar de Maizière (CDU) is elected prime minister of a coalition government consisting of representatives of the Alliance Deutschland, the newly organized SPD in the GDR and the Liberal Democratic Party.

An economic, monetary and social union between the two German states comes into force.

During the visit of Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl and Federal Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher to the Soviet Union, USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev made a statement that Germany could unite

to achieve full sovereignty already in 1990.

The People's Chamber of the GDR decides on the accession of the GDR to the Federal Republic of Germany by October 3, 1990.

The foreign ministers of the four victorious powers, as well as the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, complete the “two plus four” negotiations and sign a treaty on full sovereignty

and the borders of a united Germany, as well as limiting the number of Bundeswehr to 370,000 soldiers.

October 3, 1990 The annexation of the GDR into the Federal Republic of Germany and thus the states of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia took place. East Berlin was united with West Berlin.

The first free and secret elections to the Landtags (parliaments) of the five new states.

In the first all-German elections to the German Bundestag since 1945, the government coalition of the CDU/CSU and the FDP wins with a clear advantage in the number of votes cast.

Helmut Kohl becomes the first freely elected Federal Chancellor of a reunified Germany.

IV . Modern German politics

Germany and Europe

“...To serve the cause of world peace as an equal member of Europe on the path of unification...” - this passage of the text of the Basic Law (Constitution), written long before European unity acquired specific features, determines the foreign policy of the Federal Republic Germany from the first days of its existence Germany is a member of the European Community (EC), which has existed since 1958 and which, in addition to it, today includes Belgium, Great Britain, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and France: With the unification of Germany, the former GDR also became part of the EU.

On January 1, 1993, the European internal market began to operate on the territory of EU member states. From this moment on, there will no longer be customs and economic borders. Even before that, citizens of EU member states had the right to travel freely throughout all these countries and freely choose in which country to work. Now enterprises acquire the right to settle where they see fit. Since 1993, throughout

the territory of the European Community with a population of 340 million people will experience free circulation of goods, persons, capital and services. From this moment on, the European Community acquires the greatest economic power on earth after the United States. The participating countries have long transferred a number of sovereign rights and tasks to its competence. It, for example, carries out general policies in such areas as agricultural policy (96% of agricultural products), trade policy towards third countries, assistance to lagging regions, transport, science, technology and environmental policies, as well as cooperation in the field of foreign policy.

Political union. The common internal market is an important step towards political community. The European Community will have a single currency within this decade. The governments of the EU member states are putting ultimate goal the creation of a Political Union, which will be endowed with even greater political tasks and rights. This goal, however, is only achievable at the cost of further restrictions on the national sovereignty of EU member states and is therefore pursued with varying degrees of enthusiasm. The Federal Government is committed to a strong Political Union and, in particular, would like to give the European Parliament (which will be elected for the fourth time by all Community citizens in free elections by secret ballot in 1994) significantly greater powers than hitherto. The European Parliament will then have to take on tasks and functions that are currently only carried out by parliaments at the national level. The political union is intended not only to strengthen parliamentarism and democracy. In addition to the common legislation exercised by the European Parliament and the democratic control of executive bodies, in the Political Union all its members will also jointly develop and implement the foreign and security policy of Europe.

The door is open to the entire continent. The European Community does not seek to become a separate club of Western Europeans; their relationship is open to other states. Thanks to the process of democratization in the countries of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and the turn towards market economies and parliamentary democracy, these countries are moving closer to the Community. The EU has already started assimilation negotiations with reforming countries as a first step. Germany has taken upon itself the function of a bridge that leads these states to the Community.

2) Constitution

The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany eliminates despotism, tyranny and arbitrariness. The Basic Law clearly defines Germany as being based on the principles of legal and social state parliamentary democracy, moreover, in the form of a federal one, i.e. union state.

Separation of powers and legal control mechanisms prevent abuse of power. The individual is protected by an extensive set of fundamental rights and freedoms and, in the event of a violation of these rights, may have recourse to the courts to the fullest extent.

A society with a constitution guaranteeing freedom and democracy is fundamentally different from totalitarian state, because, unlike the latter, power in it does not belong to one person, oligarchy, party or class. The main thing in a democracy is the freedom of the individual, freedom of expression of personality, equality of all before the law and freedom of choice of parties that are in free competition with each other.

Democracy.“All state power comes from the people and is exercised by them through elections and voting,” the Basic Law unconditionally prescribes. Representatives of a wide variety of parties nominate their candidates for elections. Citizens of the country elect deputies to municipal, city and district councils (communal level), to the state parliaments - Landtags (state level) and to the German Bundestag (federal level). greatest number votes, a party usually forms a government alone or in a coalition with others. This principle operates at all three levels. Parties that received less than five percent of the votes in elections are usually not included in parliament. This rule does not allow fragmentation, which would prevent normal operation government, and allows the formation of a majority capable of governing.

Separation of powers. The concentration of power and the lack of control over power encourage abuse and corruption and impose guardianship on people from above. The Germans experienced this during the National Socialist dictatorship. In the former GDR, people also lived under conditions of the ruling regime's constant claim to total power. As history shows, power must be distributed across many shoulders. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, which guarantees the rule of law, shares state power into legislative, executive and judicial (see diagram No. 4). The separation of powers fundamentally operates at all three levels of the state - the level of the federation, states and communes.

Parliament of Germany. The supreme elected legislative body in Germany, as in all free democratic states governed by the rule of law, are parliaments at the federal and state levels. At the federal level, in the German Bundestag, the ruling parties, which have a majority of votes, and the parties in opposition sit. When passing laws, the German Bundestag interacts with the Bundesrat. Representatives of the governments of 16 states sit in the Bundesrat, since Germany is a federal state. The Bundestrat may demand changes to Bundestag bills, especially if they require the consent of the Bundesrat and when a vote ratio different from the Bundestag allows this. Thanks to this, the government and the opposition are constantly forced to look for compromise solutions. Laws, and sometimes only changes to existing laws, must each time be consistent with the Basic Law and especially with the fundamental rights of citizens guaranteed therein. Bills are usually introduced by the federal government, the Bundesrat or the Bundestag. At the beginning of the next period of its activity, the German Bundestag elects the Federal Chancellor. Parliament's responsibility is to control the government.

Commissions. The main legislative activity of the Bundestag is carried out not at parliamentary meetings, but in its commissions. Individual parties send their representatives to the commissions in a number corresponding to the percentage of votes received. In many commissions, the important position of chairman is occupied by representatives of opposition parties. There are 21 permanent commissions working on bills in the Bundestag. An important task of people's representatives is to monitor how much money (in the form of taxes and fees) the state extracts from the pockets of its citizens. The fact that the chairman of the important budget committee preparing material for parliamentary debates on the state budget is always a member not of the ruling party, but of the largest opposition party, is one of the well-thought-out rules of German democracy. An important parliamentary commission is the Complaints Committee. It is obliged to consider every complaint and request received from people, or to submit them for mandatory consideration to the competent institutions, departments, and courts. There is also an important commission overseeing the department for the protection of the constitution, the federal intelligence service and the military counterintelligence service. These government agencies, thus, are controlled to the same extent by the government and the opposition (see diagram No. 5).

Federal President. The members of the German Bundestag, together with an equal number of representatives of the state parliaments, form the Federal Assembly. It elects the federal president. The term of office of the President is five years, a second term is possible. The President proposes a candidacy for Federal Chancellor to the Bundestag and, after the elections, appoints the Chancellor to the position. The President stands above the parties and is the highest representative of the state. He represents Germany in matters of international law and concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf. The Federal President since 1984 has been Richard von Weizsäcker.

Policy towards Germany before unification. From the very beginning, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949 required politicians to complete the process leading to German unity and freedom. Therefore, all governments of the Federal Republic of Germany put the desire for national unity at the forefront of their policy towards Germany. In the seventies, after the end of the “hot period” of the Cold War, the Federal Republic of Germany pursued an active eastern policy of “turnaround as a result of rapprochement.” In the Treaty on the Basic Principles of Relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic of 1972, the parties agreed to develop normal good neighborly relations on the basis of equality and in accordance with the UN Charter.

Ensuring peace and defusing tensions. The decisive impetus for peaceful coexistence between East and West was given by the policy of détente in the early seventies. During this period, the federal government entered into treaties with the Soviet Union (in 1970), Poland (in 1970), and Czechoslovakia (in 1973). In 1971, a quadripartite agreement on Berlin was also signed. All these treaties cleared the way for the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). The Helsinki Final Act signed there (in 1975) laid the foundations for the current readiness of the participating countries to ease tensions in Europe.

The “two plus four” agreement. At the beginning of 1990, the four powers became convinced that German unity was necessary and in the interests of security in Europe. During the “two plus four” negotiations, the governments of the four victorious powers and the governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the then still existing GDR agreed, among other things, on the final consolidation of the current German borders, and in particular the Oder-Neisse border as the eastern border of Germany. The signing of a treaty between six states on September 12, 1990 ended the last powers of the four powers in Germany: the country, after unification, could freely choose which union it belonged to, and in accordance with West German demand to remain a member of NATO.The Federal Republic of Germany and the USSR concluded additional bilateral treaties in this regard In addition to the renunciation of the use of force, they contain articles on broad cooperation (Treaty on Good Neighborliness, Partnership and Cooperation, initialed on September 13, 1990 in Moscow), on the stay and withdrawal of the Soviet Western Group of Forces from the territory of the former GDR (Treaty on the Conditions of Temporary Stay and orderly withdrawal of Soviet troops), as well as an agreement on certain transitional measures.

4) Security Policy

Germany's security policy is aimed at preserving peace in freedom. The Atlantic Alliance (NATO), which celebrated its 40th anniversary on April 4, 1989, has formed the foundation of German security policy for over 30 years. A partnership based on shared values ​​and security interests between Western Europe and North America all these years it was a counterweight to the military power of the Warsaw Pact. This included the presence of American and Canadian troops in Europe and nuclear protection by the United States.

Not acting alone. Even after unification, Germany remains politically and militarily part of this transstate union system. German unification is directly related to European unification, German security policy is directly related to European and North Atlantic security policy. Perhaps the fears that sometimes arise in connection with the growth of Germany that the Germans may take a special path are unfounded due to its integration in the European Community, NATO, the Western European Union and - not least - in the CSCE. Moreover, it was Germany that in the recent past actively participated in strengthening and further development alliances and, above all, in the creation of pan-European security structures with the involvement of Russia.

The CSCE and the new Europe. The creation of common institutions within the framework of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) serves as a guarantee to the new Eastern partners that they are part of the European whole. Extremely important date for the CSCE was the signing of the Charter of Paris (November 21, 1991), which takes into account the countries of Eastern Europe to an even greater extent than before. This meeting was devoted not only to the topics of human rights, democracy in the participating countries and market economy. Great importance is attached to the creation of a conflict prevention center in Vienna. The center is designed to monitor compliance and implementation of arms control agreements. The policy of disarmament and international efforts to strengthen peace occupy a special place in the CSCE.

Disarmament. Since March 1989, negotiations have been ongoing between the member states of NATO and the then-existing Warsaw Pact on conventional forces in Europe. Their successful completion with the signing of the “Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe” on November 19, 1990 in Paris is not least the merit of the policies of the federal government: even during a visit to the Soviet Union in July 1990, Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl promised to do during the negotiations, then still going full swing, a statement of commitment to reduce the armed forces in a unified Germany to 370,000. With this commitment, as well as its earlier affirmation of the renunciation of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons, the Federal Government has made a significant contribution to the cause of disarmament and security. The agreement in the “Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe” on the upper limits for the Federal Republic of Germany means that after the unification of Germany and the acceptance of the material part of the National people's army the number of armored personnel carriers will be reduced by almost two-thirds, the number of tanks and artillery pieces by 42 percent, and the number of combat helicopters and aircraft by seven-tenths.

V . A country's economy.

1) Social market economy: a reliable model.

Later less than a year After the fall of the Berlin Wall, on July 1, 1990, the day of economic, monetary and social union, the then still existing GDR adopted the social market economy system - an economic and social system that has led the western part of Germany to material success and public welfare in the last 40 years. With the help of a social market economy, new lands should be brought to the same level of prosperity as in the west of the country.

The Federal Republic of Germany belongs to the leading industrial countries in the world. It ranks third in the world in terms of its total economic volume. In world trade it is even in second place. Since 1975, Germany has participated in the work of a group of seven large Western industrial countries (G7), which annually coordinate their economic and financial policies at “summit meetings”.

In 1992, the gross social product - the value of all goods and services produced - reached a record figure in the old states: 2.775 billion marks. Thus, according to statistics, there are 42,900 marks per inhabitant. Cleared of price changes, that is, the real value of the gross social product has doubled over the past 25 years, and fivefold in forty years. If we take 1985 prices as a basis, the gross social product increased from 415.5 billion marks in 1950 to 2.246.3 billion marks in 1992.

The fact that from the ruins of the Second World War the Federal Republic of Germany managed to rise again on a par with the leading industrial nations is due neither to mineral resources, nor capital reserves, but above all to the energy of people. Important factors The economic power of a country is the qualifications and hard work, the skill and creativity of qualified workers, as well as the greater freedom of action that the social market economy provides.

After World War II, the "economic miracle" was often mentioned. Ludwig Erhard, the first Minister of Economics of the Federal Republic of Germany, did not attach much importance to this image. He said that there was no talk of any miracle, because “it was only the result of the honest efforts of the entire people, who, on the basis of free principles, had the opportunity to once again use human initiative, human freedom and human energy.”

General economic development

And in a market economy, undesirable trends arise. The state must strive to counteract them through budgetary, tax, social and competition policies. With the Economic Sustainability Act passed in 1967, it has a tool to counteract such opportunistic failures. The goal is to ensure stable prices, high employment and external economic balance with constant and commensurate economic growth (the “magic quadrilateral”). These are the goals for today, which, unfortunately, were not always achieved in Lately. Responsibility for economic development in this spirit also lies with the German Federal Bank responsible for monetary policy and the tariff partners. The following bodies participate in the coordination and implementation of economic and financial policies: Market Council of State Bodies. It includes the federal ministers of economics and finance, one member from each state government and representatives of communities and community associations. The Federal Bank may take part in meetings that are held at least twice a year. The Market Council strives to achieve the most common approach of all participants in the implementation of market policy.

Advice financial planning. Its composition is similar to the Market Council. Its task is to coordinate the financial planning of the federation, states and communities. The Federation and the Länder are obliged to develop long-term financial plans to ensure that government expenditures and revenues are linked to the capabilities and requirements of the national economy.

Expert council to determine overall economic development through expertise. It was created in 1963. In the fall of each year, this body, consisting of five independent experts (popularly: “five wise men”), develops an examination of the state and expected development of the economy. Its purpose is to facilitate assessment for all economic policymakers and the public.

In January of each year, the government submits an annual economic report to the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. It sets out the government's economic and financial goals for the current year, the planned economic and financial policy and an assessment of the annual examination is given.

National economy and world economy

The central objective of economic policy remains the reduction of unemployment. The key to increasing employment is increasing investment. To achieve appropriate ROI. Germany seeks to strengthen market forces, mainly by stimulating individual productivity. The influence of the state on the economy is limited, anti-market regulation is eliminated. This ensures free competition and facilitates adaptation to new conditions. Important impulses in this direction were given by a major reform of the tax system, the last stage of which was implemented in 1990.

Germany for free world trade and against any manifestation of protectionism. Since it exports about one third of the gross social product, it cannot do without open markets. It is vital for the German economy to expand the European internal market, as well as to maintain old and develop new markets outside the European Community. The course of a market economy at home is matched in foreign policy by vigorous advocacy of open markets and free world trade.

Currency

The unit of currency in the Federal Republic of Germany is the German mark. It replaced the “Reichsmark” in the western part of the country in 1949, and the “GDR mark” in the new lands in 1990. There are coins in denominations of one, two, five, ten and fifty pfennigs. These are followed by coins in denominations of one, two and five German marks. Coins in denominations of more than five marks are special issues. Banknotes are available in denominations of five, ten, 20, 50, 100, 200 (new), 500 and 1000 DM. Currently, old banknotes are being replaced by New episode. The German mark is fully convertible, can be exchanged for any currency and can be imported and exported without restrictions.

German Federal Bank. The German Federal Bank monitors the stability of the German currency. It is located in Frankfurt am Main. Both in the sphere of general policy and in monetary policy, a peculiar division of power justified itself. This means that the issuing bank does not depend on the instructions of the state administration. In many states that do not have legal regulations, the government may direct central bank print if necessary more money, for example, to smooth out government deficits, which in most cases means inflation. This is not possible in Germany. The “German Federal Bank Law” of 1957 applies here. It states that the German Federal Bank is independent of the instructions of the federal government. On the other hand, the bank is obliged to support the economic policy of the federal government. The tasks of the German Federal Bank are also included in the banking law. must “by means of monetary and political competences given by law, regulate monetary circulation and the provision of credit to the economy.” As a currency bank, it must guarantee its strength. Being an issuing bank, it is granted the exclusive right to issue banknotes. As a state bank, it maintains the cash offices of the federation and the states and processes their payments. Being also a “bank of banks,” the Federal Bank is the financing authority for commercial credit institutions, since they can borrow money from the German Federal Bank, which they provide to their clients.

2) Agriculture

Germany is not only a highly industrialized country, but also a powerful producer of agricultural products. More than two-thirds of the food needs of the German population are met by local producers. Peasant family farming is typical. Land ownership is in private hands. Most rural owners cultivate their own lands. The average farm size is 19 hectares. The most important agricultural products: grains, potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, fruits, grapes, dairy products, beef and pork, poultry. After the war, German agriculture underwent significant changes. While 40 years ago, out of 100 able-bodied people, 20 worked in the agricultural sector, today this is only 5 people. Number peasant farms with more than one hectare of land decreased from 1.6 million to 630 thousand. During the same period, thanks to the use of fertilizers and plant protection products, the breeding of high-yielding varieties, breeding animals and the increasing mechanization of labor, the level of productivity of German agriculture increased enormously (see diagram No. 6). For example, the wheat yield per hectare increased from 2 to 5.4 tons, and the annual milk yield per cow increased over 20 years by almost 20 percent, amounting to 4,607 liters. As a member of the EU, and thereby of the common agricultural market, the Federal Republic. Germany transferred important rights in the field of agricultural policy to European institutions. This is especially true for prices, market structure and structural policies, where decisions are made not in Bonn, but in Brussels. The goals of the joint European agricultural policy are, among other things, to increase productivity and increase peasant earnings. In this regard, European farmers are guaranteed the purchase of certain quantities of products at fixed prices. At the same time, cheaper products from non-EU countries are subject to protective customs duties to limit competition. Such support for agriculture has led to overproduction in many industries, for example, oil, meat, wine. the main task agricultural policy - to find a solution that benefits both farmers and consumers.

About 50% of the territory is used in German agriculture. However, the industry's contribution to Country's GDP is only about 1% (based on product value). More than 60% of all production comes from livestock farming, which includes cattle breeding and pig breeding.

Cultivated areas in Germany account for 35% of the territory. The area under forage crops is much larger than under food crops. A large amount of feed is still imported.

Grain crops occupy more than 3/5 of the arable land in the western lands, and 1/2 in the eastern lands. The main food crop is wheat, but Germany stands out in Europe for the production of rye, oats, and barley. Some varieties of barley are grown specifically for beer production. Germany is fully self-sufficient in food grain.

Bavaria has the largest hop growing areas. Potato growing and sugar beet cultivation are important. Viticulture and gardening are widespread along the valleys of the Rhine and its tributaries (in the west of the country).

As in many other countries, agriculture cannot be completely left to its own devices for social reasons. market competition. The goal of the German government is to gradually transfer into private ownership investments in state-owned enterprises or entire enterprises, such as the Federal Railways (Deutsche Bundesbahn), the State Railways (Deutsche Reichsbahn) of the former GDR or the German Federal Post Office, in order to achieve progress in these areas as well more competition, freeing state budgets from the financial burden and increasing the efficiency of services to the population.

3) INDUSTRY

Energy

Germany's energy sector provides more than 1/2 of its needs through imports (oil, gas, coal). The main role in the fuel base is played by oil and gas, and the share of coal is about 30%. Electricity generation structure: 64% - at thermal power plants, 4% - at hydroelectric power plants, 32% - at nuclear power plants. Coal-fired thermal power plants operate in the Ruhr and Saar basins, in port cities; natural gas power plants operate in northern Germany; fuel oil power plants operate in oil refining centers; other thermal power plants operate on mixed fuels. Nuclear power plants are built outside coal basins. Hydroelectric power stations operate mainly in the south of the country (on mountain rivers).

Germany has only one reserve in sufficient quantities - coal. In the east of the country, in Lausitz and around Leipzig there are huge deposits of brown coal, from which the former GDR covered 70 percent of its primary energy needs. Since development was carried out in open pits, large areas were devastated: villages were demolished, excavators left behind a “lunar” landscape, reclamation was carried out rarely and superficially. As a result, a gigantic environmental burden. Now in the new lands we will have to gradually move away from brown coal , bring the situation with reclamation to the level of old lands (see diagram No. 7).

Ferrous metallurgy– one of the most important branches of specialization in Germany, but is currently in crisis. The main factories are concentrated in the Ruhr and the Lower Rhine; there are also in the Saarland and in the eastern states of Germany. Conversion and rolling enterprises are located throughout the country. The Rheisk-Westphalian region is the industrial heart of the country, its largest agglomeration. The land is located in the north-west of Germany along the Rhine and its tributaries. One of them is R. Ruhr - gave the name to the core of this area - the Ruhr Basin.

The area is characterized by the greatest concentration of cities and industry, extreme building density and enormous environmental pollution. Here, on 13% of the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, almost 1/3 of the industrial potential is concentrated. The average population density reaches 500 people. For 1 sq. km, with 95% of them living in cities. There is little agricultural land. The brown coal sections of the Cologne basin after coal mining resemble a lunar landscape. And all this despite the serious measures already taken to protect the environment. Although the most modern system reuse of river water (a whole chain of reservoirs in the Ruhr), but already half of the water consumed is extracted from underground. Strict measures have been taken against air pollution, land reclamation and landscaping after coal mining are being carried out, but environmental pollution continues to reach a high level. The technogenic landscape predominates.

The outstanding economic role of the region is explained by the richness of its mineral resources and its position “on the water”. Coal from the Ruhr Basin became the basis of the entire industrial complex (coal - metallurgy - heavy industry) that emerged here at the end of the last century. And the main waterway - the Rhine with a system of canals - became its “bloody” system. More than 4/5 of all cargo delivered here by water transport goes directly by water to blast furnaces, factories, workshops, which reduces the cost of transportation. Unlike the North, the Rhineland-Westphalia region is relatively young and industrial. It was the largest military-industrial base of the Kaiser's and Hitler's Germany. His monopoly dominated the country, suppressing the development of other areas. They profited from the arms race and created giant concerns covering dozens of types of industries, from coal mining to the production of chemical machines.

The cities of the Ruhr chain are quite monotonous. A continuous chain of domains, coke oven batteries, and factories stretches along the banks of the Rhine near Duisburg. There is no such “metallurgical landscape” anywhere else in Germany. Near the city, 1/3 of West German cast iron and 1/5 of steel are smelted. Here are the largest blast furnaces, electric furnaces, broadband rolling mills, and the most modernized factories. Duisburg is the “gate of the Ruhr” in the west, and its main gate. Duisburg is the largest river port of Germany and all of Foreign Europe, like the Hamburg of inland waterways with a complex labyrinth of berths, warehouses and access roads; its cargo turnover is 38 million tons. It is a large, typically Ruhr city with about half a million inhabitants. Typically Ruhr because the chain of its metallurgical plants stretches for 15 km, and clouds of smoke constantly hang over the city. It is also typical because it is dominated by the “Ruhr complex”: coal - metallurgy - heavy engineering. The Thyssen concern, the largest metal producer, arose here.

In the Ruhr region (North Rhine-Westphalia), according to estimates, there is still a reserve of “black gold” of 20 billion tons. However, coal has ceased to play its former role: oil, natural gas and nuclear energy have pushed it into the background in recent decades. Although The coal mines still employ 140,000 people (with 800,000 dependent businesses and family members), and many other industries have sprung up on the Ruhr.The importance of coal will continue to decline as seams go deeper and mining becomes more difficult, i.e. more expensive. To avoid a further sharp decline in the number of jobs in the coal industry - the Ruhr is still hit hard in terms of employment - and to maintain the importance of hard coal as a national energy source, large subsidies have been paid to coal miners for many years Ruhr and Saare.

Non-ferrous metallurgy – works mainly on imported and recycled raw materials. In terms of aluminum smelting, Germany is second only to Norway in foreign Europe. The main factories are in North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg and Bavaria.

Mechanical engineering and metalworking is the branch of specialization of Germany in the MGRT, accounting for up to 1/2 of industrial production and exports. The largest centers: Munich, Nuremberg, Mannheim, Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg. Bavaria is a leader in the electrical engineering industry. The automotive industry, marine shipbuilding, optical-mechanical, and aerospace industries are highly developed.

The main region of the chemical industry in Germany is North Rhine-Westphalia (2/5 of all production). The largest centers are Leverkusen (Bayer concern), Cologne, Dormagen, Frankfurt am Main (Hoechst concern), Ludwigshafen (BASF concern). In the eastern states (after the reunification of Germany), the chemical industry found itself in a state of deep crisis.

Oil and gas. The most important energy carrier is oil. Only a small share of it is mined in the country, mainly in Lower Saxony. The heavy energy dependence on foreign supplies that became apparent during the two major international oil crises still exists. The main suppliers of oil are Russia, Great Britain, Libya and Norway. Recently, the importance (almost equal to coal) of natural gas, coming mainly from Russia, has increased. Gas is valued as a reliable and environmentally friendly energy source, often used for heating apartments.

Controversial energy carrier. The nuclear reactor disaster at Chernobyl highlighted the dangers of nuclear energy even more clearly. Despite the high level of technical safety, in the coming years no more nuclear power plants will be built in Germany, and the existing ones will operate under even stricter control. And yet it is impossible to abandon nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants in the east of the country that did not meet safety requirements have been shut down, many reactors in the west of the country are not in operation, and one of them (Niedereichach/Bavaria) is being dismantled.

Energy of the future. More and more attention is being paid to regenerative energy sources - solar, wind, water. Hydroelectric power plants have been operating in the Alps and the mid-altitude mountains for a long time, but the energy-producing “wind turbines” in northern Germany were installed only a few years ago. Solar collectors are increasingly used in housing construction. There is a significant need for research and development aimed at improving this technology and Possibility of use in regions with low amounts of solar radiation.

4) TRANSPORT

Germany ranks one of the first in the world in terms of the density of transport routes. Due to the high intensity of economic relations with EU partners and the central position in Europe, the share of cross-border transport in the total freight turnover of all modes of transport is large (43%, 1993). The basis of the transport network is railways (about 44 thousand km), 2/5 of which are electrified.

In the total cargo turnover, the main role belongs to road transport (about 60%), then railway (20%), inland waterways (15%) and pipelines (see diagram No. 9). Share in passenger turnover road transport even higher (about 90%). The total length of high-class roads exceeded 11 thousand km.

The length of inland waterways is about 7 thousand km. The main waterway is the international Rhine River, on which many large ports are located, including Duisburg, the world's largest river port with a cargo turnover of 50 million tons per year.

In terms of tonnage of container ships, the country ranks 4th in the world after the USA, Panama and Taiwan. German seaports are inferior to the largest ports of European countries in terms of cargo turnover. The largest of them are Hamburg, the oil port of Wilhelmshaven, as well as Bremen, Emden, and Rostock.

Aviation transport, like sea transport, plays important role in the country's foreign relations. All major fair centers have airports. Total in Germany 16 international airports, and Frankfurt Airport ranks first in Europe in terms of cargo turnover, and third in passenger traffic.

Automobile

Who would have thought in 1885, when German engineers Karl Friedrich Benz and Gottlieb Daimler put on the road the first car with an internal combustion engine, that their invention would become so important for humanity? A car means for a person everything that is not voluntarily given up - freedom, flexibility, mobility. According to forecasts, the number of registered cars in a united Germany by 2010 will increase from the current 35 million (that is, statistically one car for every 2.3 people) to 45.5 million. This will amount to one tenth of the entire world machine park (see diagram No. 8). It is clear that German roads will no longer withstand such a load from personal transport. Leading European automakers are already working on a program that will allow them to monitor the situation on the roads and control traffic using electronic means. In addition, they intend to present solutions by 1998 on how to make the car more environmentally friendly and further reduce carbon dioxide pollution.

Local service

The usual overcrowding in the center of large cities and the nerve-wracking search for a free parking space do not prevent the car from unshakably remaining a favorite mode of transport. Communes are trying to solve the problem of road congestion with personal transport by expanding the tram network, allocating large areas for parking outside the city center, and arranging a special row for buses. The center in many cities was gradually closed to the car. In Munich, for example, only residents of the area can enter the Old Town by car. The number of parking spaces here is limited. However, new ones are not being built, hoping to encourage people to switch to the bus and metro, and if they are built, it is not in the center, but outside it - next to the stops of city transport going to the center. Munich intends to establish a company specifically for the construction of such parking areas.

Railway

Between everyone big cities In Germany, modern comfortable electric trains 1C (“Intercity”) run at hourly intervals. But they didn’t stop there. “Twice as fast as a car and only half as slow as an airplane!” - with this advertising motto the German Federal Railways ("Bundesbahn") opened new page its history. The first high-speed ICE (Intercity Express) trains began running between Hamburg and Munich in 1991, developing maximum speed up to 250 km/h. The duration of the trip on these express trains is reduced by about a quarter compared to 1C trains. By 2000, it is planned to put into operation a high-speed railway network with a length of about 2000 km. Freight trains will also be able to operate on it. This plan, among others, should make the Bundesbahn more attractive. After all, it is the most unprofitable enterprise in Germany. There are a number of reasons for this, and one of the main ones is that Bendesbahn, as the only transport enterprise, must independently maintain transport routes, i.e. railway tracks and rails, and people like to drive cars and even prefer to transport goods by trucks rather than by trains, which is not at all good for the environment. Now they are trying to carry out most of the freight transport again by rail. The Volkswagen automobile concern is already testing new system. About half of the total turnover between individual Volkswagen plants was transferred to rails. Less environmentally friendly Bundesbahn plan to make it more economical Passenger Transportation in sparsely populated areas rural areas. The railway lines here will be discontinued and replaced with a modern, computer-controlled bus system. Although this provides residents of these areas with a connection to the public transport network, it also increases the load on highways.

Air service

“You can’t take off in Munich, you can’t land in Frankfurt,” - this is how Roef-Dieter Grass, head of the information department of German Lufthansa, describes the situation at many German airfields. Of course, this is an exaggeration, but delays and delays are still common. Germany's 12 international airfields are crowded with cars, because no mode of transport can boast such growth as air: 60 million people in 1990 reached their destination by air, flying from German airports, and this is more than ten percent more than in previous year. For airlines and their customers, this problem often manifests itself in the form of flight delays, since the capacity of runways, airspace and ticket halls is not unlimited. Additional difficulties arise due to the lack of a pan-European, cross-State aviation safety service.

Shipping

Shipping on inland waters should be used more intensively for the transport of goods. This is what the Federal Ministry of Transport decided. This environmentally friendly mode of transport has so far accounted for 18 percent in West Germany and only 4.5 percent of freight traffic in East Germany. Mostly bulk cargo was transported - coal, ore, stone, sand, oil. But the capacity of navigation on inland waters is far from exhausted. In order to arouse more interest in it, a decision was made to connect the most important North Sea ports (Hamburg, Bremerhaven, Cuxhaven, Wilhelmshaven, Emden) and the economic centers of the west of the republic with the regions of Magdeburg and Berlin by waterways. This will require the rehabilitation and expansion of the Central German and Elbe-Hafel Canals. In the west, near Magdeburg, construction work has already begun, and it is planned in other areas. Construction of the Main-Danube Canal was completed in the fall of 1992. It connects the North Sea with the Black Sea. Due to the constant increase in volume transport transportation, due to the further liberalization of trade between Eastern and Western Europe, maritime and coastal shipping may well acquire an important role. If the transport network in the territories adjacent to the coast were improved, then most of the trade between East and West along the Baltic Sea coast could be carried out by sea.

In new lands

Potholes in the road surface, bridges in disrepair, poorly marked roadways... The road network in the former GDR is in a deplorable state compared to the West German standard. It can barely withstand the sharply increased traffic loads. Extension road network is one of the most urgent tasks and is an important prerequisite for economic recovery. There are numerous gaps to be filled in the highway network along the east-west route. For example, there is no connection between Hamburg and the industrial areas of Saxony or a line that would connect the Baltic port cities between Lübeck and Szczecin, Poland. On a section of highways approximately 1,000 km long, a third lane must be installed in both directions, otherwise there is a risk of congestion. To relieve congestion on roads inside cities, bypass routes are essential. To avoid transport delays at numerous railway crossings construction of bridges and tunnels will be required. Net railways must go along five corridors: from Berlin to Hannover with a continuation to the Ruhr region and Cologne, from Berlin to the German North Sea ports from Berlin to Stuttgart and Munich, from Saxony and Thuringia to the Rhine-Ruhr, as well as the Rhine-Main region. All this consumed huge amounts of money. A conservative estimate is based on DM 140 billion over the next ten years.

5)Foreign trade

Germany is a classic exporting state (see diagram No. 10). With few natural resources, its economic power is concentrated in processing and services. Germany is one of the world's leading export countries finished products, industrial plants, technology and know-how. In the list of the most “popular” goods, the first places are occupied by cars, machine tools, chemical products and electrical equipment. Germany’s most important trading partners are in the West. Economic ties are especially close with France, which imported German goods worth DM 150.4 billion in 1990. It is followed by Italy (DM 112.5 billion) and the Netherlands (DM 111.4 billion).

Reduction of trade with the East. Commodity supplies to the states of Central, South-Eastern and Eastern Europe, which had almost vital important primarily for enterprises in the new states, decreased sharply after the collapse of the CMEA. But be that as it may, the Soviet Union was still among the dozens of important importers of German goods in 1990, purchasing them in the amount of DM 46.3 billion. First of all, high-quality industrial plants were supplied to the USSR. To ensure consistency in German-Soviet trade relations, the federal government provided the USSR with billions of dollars in loans, conditions and guarantees to cover export orders.

The active balance is going down. On the other hand, the economic recovery of the new lands led to a sharp increase in German imports. The substantial excess in the balance of goods and services produced, which reached its peak in 1989 at DM 107.6 billion, fell significantly in 1990.

Russia is the most important supplier of oil. Soviet oil supplies will remain important for Germany in the future, as the resource-poor country primarily needs energy. Natural gas and oil supplies account for more than two-thirds of German exports from Russia. In the first half of 1991, Russia became the most important oil supplier for Germany, while in 1990 it was only in sixth place.

6) Environment

In Germany, especially in the old states, great importance is attached to the solution environmental problem. Advanced technologies for recycling and destruction of production waste have been developed. For example, the most modern household waste incineration plant has been operating near Hamburg for several years. The exhaust gases are purified and absorbed here in such a way that only warm air enters the atmosphere. The ecological situation in the new lands is more complicated, mainly due to the widespread use of drilled coal, which not only pollutes the atmosphere, but also causes enormous damage to the soil. Therefore, in the near future, tens of billions of marks will have to be spent on land reclamation alone, especially in the Leipzig region, where the bulk of brown coal is mined. All political parties are now to a greater extent attention to environmental issues, the public also attaches paramount political importance to these problems. People's readiness to change their life and consumption habits, and even make sacrifices in the name of preserving the environment, is also increasing.

Industry reaction. People who leave things lying on store shelves when shopping

products with excessive packaging or containing components harmful to the environment, giving away

preference for environmentally friendly products influences manufacturers who

which cannot fail to take into account the desires of consumers. While still ecological products and goods

ry are somewhat more expensive than ordinary ones. However, the development of events last years shows that

before- This is how the market for environmentally friendly clean products. Manufacturers race

claim that their products are “biodegradable,” “natural in composition,” or “environmentally valuable.” While these “baits” may sometimes be inaccurate or exaggerated, they show that consumers' environmentally conscious attitude does not remain

without attention.

Eco-technology is on the way. Not only the market for eco-products is growing, but also the relatively young industry of eco-technology. Metal and plastic processing firms in the chemical and computer industries have expanded their activities in the environmental sector. German environmental technology is exported to all countries of the world; over the past ten years, 430 thousand new jobs have been created in the old lands of the republic. A similar circumstance also means a chance for industry in new lands, where, with the help of modern technology eliminate damage caused to the environment, protect it from harmful loads in the future. Experts believe that regions still under stress have a bright future in this regard.

Laws protecting the environment. In recent years, politicians have developed numerous laws aimed at protecting climate conditions, as well as reducing waste and eliminating it environmentally. Fluorine compounds, which destroy the ozone layer of the atmosphere, are gradually being banned, and waste recycling will have priority over incineration. From mid-1995, industry will be responsible for packaging waste. A comprehensive recycling system is currently being established by the respective manufacturers. Collections for packaging will be installed near residential buildings, the used material of which will be recycled and further used. The packaging waste regulation has initiated the creation of new disposal structures throughout Germany. In the future, it is planned to return used products to their manufacturers: cars, household and electrical appliances. The goal now is not final elimination, but the creation of a closed circulation of materials in industrial production.

VI . Bundeswehr - armed forces of Germany

The Bundeswehr (armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany) has existed since 1956 and is part of a democratic society - the structure and concept of the armed forces fundamentally exclude the emergence of a state within a state. A soldier has the same rights as any other citizen of the state, and his military duty should not diverge from his civil rights. The fundamental rights of military personnel are inviolable. And only in isolated cases and when special circumstances restrictions are possible.

For defense only. The creation of the Bundeswehr was based on the argument that even the freest democracy cannot do without armed protection. However, the Basic Law (Constitution), to which every recruit is sworn to observe, categorically prohibits preparation for offensive war. Article 26 states: “Actions which are likely to disturb the peaceful existence of peoples and are undertaken with this intention, and especially preparations for waging offensive war, are contrary to the constitution. They are punishable by law." The Bundeswehr can be brought into battle only for the purpose of defense. So, the Basic Law defines the tasks and structure of the Bundeswehr, which is recruited through conscription for active service. Not military men, but politicians are deliberately appointed to its highest control and command authorities. of the Armed Forces is the Minister of Defense, who is subordinate to the Federal Chancellor. The Federal Chancellor, for his part, like the entire Federal Government as a whole, is subject to the laws. The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is Peaceful time is the Federal Minister of Defense, and in the event of an enemy attack - the Federal Chancellor. The fact of an enemy attack must be established by the legislative bodies (Bundestag and Bundesrat), i.e. it is subject to the democratic control of representatives elected by the people.

Personality education. A distinctive feature of the Bundeswehr is the concept of individual education and the idea of ​​a “citizen in uniform.” The meaning is that a soldier who is called upon to defend freedom should experience as much freedom as possible in his everyday life as a soldier. But how does this combine - democracy and freedom, with on the one hand, and order and obedience, on the other? Both commanders and subordinates are subject to special demands. In the Bundeswehr, they expect not blind, but critical obedience. Here they want to deal with a self-responsible, enlightened citizen, with a person who understands the meaning of his service and knows his rights and responsibilities. This must be ensured by commanders. Every third soldier in the Bundeswehr is a commander. But you cannot command without learning this. Especially important topic in officer training - personality education. The future commander asks questions: how do I treat my subordinates? How do I encourage them to serve? How do I gain their trust without ingratiating myself? Since the basics of personality education are set out in a number of laws, decrees and official regulations, it requires the highest degree of awareness from everyone. The most important thing here is the person, care, fair treatment, political education without “processing,” compliance with military law and regulations.

Conscription and alternative service

Men, upon reaching 18 years of age, may be called up to serve in the armed forces, the Federal Border Guard, or one of the services civil defense. Every conscript has the right to refuse to serve with weapons in his hands for moral reasons. He will then usually have to perform alternative service, for example caring for the sick or elderly within the framework of social institution. Alternative service replaces military service. Military service currently lasts 12 months, and alternative service 15 months. In 1990 at military service 200 thousand young people were drafted, 70 thousand went to alternative service. Conscript. There are currently 470 thousand soldiers serving in the Bundeswehr. Of these, 60 percent are conscripts, 40 percent are active duty military personnel. According to the law on military service, men aged 18 to 28 years, and in some cases specified by law up to 32 years old, can be called up for military service. When conducting conscription, the Bundeswehr takes into account as much as possible the conscript's work or study situation. Graduates of gymnasiums and technical schools, if they want to go to university, try to be called up immediately after finishing school, so that they can immediately begin their studies at a university in a year. Most conscripts want to serve as close to hometown. We try to satisfy such wishes as much as possible.

VII . Economy and culture of the federal states

Nowhere is the federal structure of the country more clearly visible than in cultural life. There has never been a metropolis in Germany like Paris in France or London in England. Original cultural life lands led to the emergence of small and large cultural centers of various profiles. Cultural and scientific life flows even in small towns and communities. Berlin, as the capital and seat of government of a united Germany, already plays a prominent role in the field of culture. But other German cities also maintain their position as cultural centers. The federal state ensures the further flourishing of cultural diversity and intensive exchange between East and West, which never existed before unification. This diversity can be judged from the regional distribution of different types of food in Germany. cultural institutions and events. State Library, the direct institution of the Federation of Public Law, is located in Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig and Berlin. The State Archives, headquartered in Koblenz, has branches in Berlin, Potsdam, Freiburg/Breisgau and Bayreuth, among others. Hamburg has a large concentration of media, and Cologne and Düsseldorf are centers contemporary art. Berlin has the most theaters. The academies of sciences are located in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Darmstadt, Göttingen, Halle, Heidelberg, Leipzig, Mainz and Munich. Most famous museums in Berlin, Munich, Nuremberg, Cologne and Stuttgart. The two most important literary archives are located in Marbach and Weimar.

Therefore, there are many cultural centers in Germany. There is no distant cultural "province". No need to travel hundreds of kilometers for production good theater or a concert of good music. And some towns have valuable libraries or wonderful art collections. This is explained by the fact that Germany once consisted of many principalities, and their vain sovereigns turned their residences into centers of culture, and sometimes conscious citizens generously financed the development of the arts and sciences in their cities.

Baden-Württemberg

Baden-Württemberg is located in the center of Europe. In the west it borders with France, in the south with Switzerland, beyond Lake Constance with Austria. Thanks to this location, two thirds of land exports go to European countries and regions.

Land in numbers: Population (millions) 10.25

Area (sq.km) 35.751

Gross output (billion marks) 484

Share of industrial exports (percent) 31

Economy of Baden-Württemberg

Many people in Germany and abroad identify the state of Baden-Württemberg with Germany's economic successes. It is known that the state of Baden-Württemberg is a center of developed industry, advanced technologies and scientific research.

South-west Germany is still in early times industrialization needed people who thought in terms of the future. Scarce land and a lack of raw materials forced inventors and scientists to create good out of necessity: Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz built the automobile, Wilhelm Maybach invented the internal combustion engine, Robert Bosch contributed big influence To develop electrical engineering, Count Zeppelin built his airship on the shores of Lake Constance.

The industrial landscape of Baden-Württemberg is based on ancient traditions of craftsmanship and modern entrepreneurship. The middle class today creates half of the gross national product and thus represents the economic backbone of the country. The deepest traditions are those of precision mechanics, centered in the Black Forest, which began with the production of watches, and automobile manufacturing.

World famous companies such as Daimler-Benz, Bosch, Porsche and others are located in and around Stuttgart. Many medium and small firms are, as a rule, highly specialized subsuppliers of these industrial giants.

The economic zone of the Middle Neckar is adjacent to the industrial areas of Karlsruhe with oil refining, Mannheim and Heidelberg with specialized production of buses and printing equipment, as well as Freiburg and Ulm, centers with a rich offer of services.

The products of the Baden-Württemberg industry enjoy in great demand worldwide. Quality and reliability, compliance with market requirements, bold technological solutions - all this determines the high density of industrial enterprises. Export volume per capita matches that of Japan. Enterprises in the ground are located not only in densely populated centers, but also in rural areas.

If previously the central place in industry was occupied by mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and automotive engineering, today everything higher value acquires the services sector.

Baden-Württemberg is also a major center of the publishing industry and media mass media. 30 percent are published here. German magazines and 40 percent. books, there are two public radio stations, three private regional and 15 local radio stations. Many foreign companies, such as ABB, Alcatel, John Deere, Hewlett Packard, Hyundai, IBM, Kodak, Michelin, Minolta, Sony, are represented in the country by their branches.

Nature and culture of Baden-Württemberg

Baden-Württemberg belongs to the regions of the country with the most picturesque landscapes. The Black Forest - a wooded area of ​​mid-altitude mountains, Lake Constance - the "Swabian Sea", the green valleys of the Rhine and Danube, the Neckar and Tauber, the harsh Swabian Alb and the pleasing terrain in Marktgräflerland are the most favorite places for organizing walks, recreation and sports.

Baden-Württemberg is one of Germany's leading centers of art and culture, home to many famous people in the world. The resourcefulness and enterprise of the inhabitants of this region are proverbial; their spiritual and artistic achievements fill more than one chapter. German history, spiritual and cultural development Germany. Here are just some of the names of poets born here - Friedrich Schiller (1759 - 1805) and Friedrich Hölderlin (1770 - 1843) or philosophers - Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 - 1831) and Martin Heidegger (1889 - 1976).

The Middle Neckar region, with its capital Stuttgart, is the economic and cultural center of the earth. Mannheim's exhibition halls, the Reis Museum and its traditional theaters delight art lovers. Cathedrals in Ulm and Freiburg - evidence of architectural excellence in southern Germany. The palace and old town in Heidelberg attract tourists from all over the world. The traditional cuckoo clock from the Black Forest is not only an object of admiration at the clock museum in Furtwangen, but also a favorite souvenir of foreign guests.

The land is rich in traditions folk festivals and wine festivals. It is famous for its cuisine and hospitable hosts. Baden-Württemberg has an extremely advantageous transport location, which further increases the interest of tourism and industrial companies.

Republic of Bavaria

Population 11.8 million

Area 70.554 sq. km

Capital Munich

The largest federal state in terms of area has the most ancient state traditions: back in the 6th century there was a duchy of the Bavarian tribe. IN great history and rich cultural and historical heritage lie largely behind the appeal of Bavaria as a German tourist paradise, as well as the charm of the Bavarian landscape. The attractiveness of this favorite travel destination in the country is the mountain world of the Alps, where the highest mountain range in Germany, the Zug-Spitze (2963 m), lies, picturesque lakes in the hilly pre-Alpine plateau, the Bavarian Forest with the first German national park, the Danube and Main valleys with their tributaries , landscapes and cities through which the “Romantic Road” leads.

Munich was previously cultural center the largest German agricultural state and was considered the rural capital. After World War II, it is called the “secret capital of Germany” and turns into the center of an economic region with an orientation towards the future (automotive, aircraft, electrical and electronics industries, insurance and publishing). The capital of Bavaria (1.23 million inhabitants) is an important center of science and research: it has its own university and other higher education institutions. educational establishments, Institute named after Max Planck and the nuclear research reactor. Since 1992, Munich has had a new airport on the Erdinger Marsh, which bears the name of Franz Josef Strauss, who was the Prime Minister of Bavaria for many years. This airport is the main airport in international air traffic.

Industry and Agriculture

Nuremberg (493,000 inhabitants) is located at the heart of the future European motorway network on the route from Naples to Stockholm, from Lisbon via Prague to Warsaw. Together with Fürth and Erlangen, it forms an industrial region with major industries such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and toy production (Siemens, Quelle, Grundig). The international toy fair, held annually in Nuremberg, is the most important of its kind. Augsburg (255,000 inhabitants) is home to the mechanical engineering and textile industries. In Regensburg (1,21,000 inhabitants) there is a young electronics industry and a very young automotive industry (BMB), and cars are also produced in Ingolstadt (Audi). Glass factories (Zwiesel) and porcelain manufactories (Rosenthal, Hutchenreuter) in Eastern Bavaria on high level continue the traditions of craftsmanship and industry. In large areas of Bavaria, in particular in the Alps and the pre-Alpine plateau, agriculture and forestry are developed. Franconian wine is highly valued among connoisseurs. Hundreds of breweries produce the famous Bavarian beer, which is served in large mugs, for example, during the Munich October Festival.

Culture of all eras

Regensburg has largely retained its medieval appearance, Nuremberg, the city of Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528), houses priceless masterpieces of the late Middle Ages in its churches and museums. The Renaissance is best represented in Augsburg. The pearls of Baroque and Rococo are the monastery churches in Banz and Ettal, the basilica in Vierzenheiligen and the Wieskirche church near Steingaden, included by UNESCO in the list of monuments of world culture, as well as the residence of the archbishop in Würzburg.

Munich is home to not only the largest German university, but also the Deutsches Museum with the world's largest collection on the history of natural sciences and technology, in addition to numerous historical Buildings, famous art collections and theaters.

The castles of the Bavarian "fairy-tale king" Ludwig II, Herrenchim See, Linderhof and Neuschwanstein, built in the historicized style of the 19th century, are a magnet for visitors, as are the towns of Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Nördlingen and Dinkelsbühl with their medieval half-timbered houses.

And music lovers have plenty of places to have fun in Bavaria. For example, every year during music festival Operas by Richard Wagner, who lived here in 1872-1883, are staged in Bayreuth.

Berlin

Population 3.4 million

Area 899 sq. km

Capital Berlin

A city of global importance with a rich past.

For decades after World War II, Berlin was known as a symbol of German division and the center of the Cold War between the victorious Western powers and the Soviet Union. In 1948, West Berlin survived an eleven-month blockade thanks to an "air bridge". Aviation air force The United States, with support from British and French allies, provided the population of West Berlin with vital goods by air. The three Western sectors and East Berlin became increasingly disconnected in their development. The split seemed final when the GDR began building the wall on August 13, 1961. It fell only on November 9, 1989 as a result of a peaceful revolution in the GDR. Among the ruling burgomasters are individuals known for their participation in post-war history far beyond the city's borders: Ernst Reuter, Billy Brandt and Richard von Weizsäcker.

The German capital is the center of European culture

Before its spiritual and cultural decline under the Nazi dictatorship and before the destruction of World War II, Berlin was not only the economic center of Germany, but also one of the cultural capitals of Europe during the Golden Twenties. Berlin has three opera houses (the German Opera and Ballet, the German State Opera on Unter den Linden, the Komische Oper), several large orchestras, dozens of other theaters and, as before, it is one of the major museum cities in the world .

Intense competition in the newspaper market: influential newspapers, in particular Berliner Morgenpost, Berliner Zeitung and Tagesspiegel. The interregional newspaper Die Welt moved its editorial office from Bonn to Berlin. Located in the eastern part of Berlin, the university is named after the scientist and politician Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) and the name of his brother, the great traveler and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859). In the western part there are the Free University and the Technical University, founded in 1948. Science and research are represented in Berlin by numerous other institutes, including, for example, the Institute. Khan and Meitner, who, in particular, conducts research in the field of nuclear and reactor physics, Institute of Communications Technology. Heinrich Hertz and the Foundation Cultural heritage Prussia."

Currently, the future government residence is growing out of its former boundaries. Calculations show that the greater Berlin area will have approximately eight million inhabitants in 2000. Undertaking great effort to harmonize the transport network (street transport, metro and trains, ferries, air transport) with modern requirements, without destroying the “green” Berlin, a city of parks, forests and lakes.

To this day, Berlin is the largest industrial center in Europe with industries such as mechanical engineering, food and flavoring, textiles and, above all, the electrical industry. In the 19th century, two global companies were created here - Siemens JSC and AEG. They successfully made the leap into the information age.

The city's leading trading houses are KadeBe (Kaufhaus des Westens), Wertheim and Hertie.

The newly united city has big challenges ahead. Now people who have been formed for decades in different political systems are coming together. Economic imbalances are being smoothed out. Hundreds of thousands of apartments are being rehabilitated, mainly in the eastern part. Although the unification caused a huge economic boom in the city, measures to restore ties between previously divided parts, to expand and modernize the future seat of government, to accommodate a sharply increased number of residents require creativity, resources and resourcefulness. Meanwhile, domestic and foreign investors purchased spacious plots of land on Potsdamer Platz, which had been left empty after World War II. The layout of the future government quarter in the bend of the Spree is almost ready. 835 architects from 44 countries took part in an architectural competition to design the area.

Brandenburg

Population 2.5 million

Area 29.053 sq. km

Capital Potsdam

The German capital is located in the center of the state of Brandenburg.

The capital of Brandenburg, Potsdam (140,000 inhabitants) is located at the gates of Berlin.

It was the site of the Potsdam Conference, at which, in the summer of 1945, political leaders of the United States, Great Britain and the Soviet Union made far-reaching decisions about a defeated Germany. The location was chosen with intention, as Potsdam was closely connected with Prussian-German history after King Frederick II (1712-1786) made Potsdam his residence. Frederick's Potsdam buildings, in particular in the beautiful Sanssouci Park, outlived Prussia as a state. Here the enlightened monarch held philosophical conversations with friends, for example, with Voltaire (1694-1778) and received such famous guests as Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). On August 17, 1991, the coffin of Frederick II, which was hidden during the Second World War and in 1952 transferred to the Hohenzollern family estate in Hechingen (Baden-Württemberg), was returned to Sanssoucy.

Rye and steel

Brandenburg is the largest state of the new federal states in terms of area. Agriculture and forestry are among the most important sectors of the economy of the state of Brandenburg. 35 percent of the territory is forest (mainly pine). Rye and wheat, oilseeds, potatoes and sugar beets are cultivated, and around Berlin, as well as in Oderbruch near Frankfurt, vegetables and fruits are cultivated. The industrial regions are Eisenhüttenstadt (steel production) and Cottbus, where brown coal mining forms the basis of the chemical industry and energy. 23.6 percent of jobs are in mechanical engineering and automotive manufacturing. South of Berlin, in Ludwigsfeld, Mercedes-Benz produces trucks at an assembly plant. The planned investment here amounts to one billion marks. In Frankfurt an der Oder - the electrical engineering industry and instrument making.

Brandenburg has high hopes for Berlin's economic recovery. In the future, it is planned to unite Berlin and Brandenburg into one state with the capital in Potsdam. Preparations for the unification are entrusted to the Joint Intergovernmental Commission of both states.

Free Hanseatic City of Bremen

Population 684,000

Area 404 sq. km

Capital Bremen

Two cities - one land

Bremen and Bremerhaven are located 65 km apart and nevertheless together form the federal state of Bremen, the smallest in terms of area and population.

In Bremerhaven, cargo is handled mostly in containers (approx. 60 percent; since 1983, Bremerhaven has had the world's largest container handling facility). In the import of tea and coffee, tobacco and cotton, Bremen can be considered a monopolist in the country.

Bremen's industry is not limited to shipping and shipbuilding. The city initially developed high-performance aircraft and space industries. There is also the automotive industry, the electrical industry, as well as the food and flavor industry.

Bremerhaven is the center of German polar research. There are also old ships and vessels from the German Shipping Museum.

Bremen living room

On the market square are the Gothic St. Petri Cathedral and the luxurious Renaissance Town Hall with its hospitable wine cellar. In front of it is the Roland pillar of 1404 - a symbol of the freedom of the city, and next to it is another symbol - a monument Bremen Town Musicians, animal figures based on the Brothers Grimm fairy tale.

The market square was built in 1924-31. By the merchant Ludwig Roselius, Bötcherstrasse, full of shops and museums, is a brick monument to the Bremen burghers.

Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg

Population 1.7 million

Area 755 sq. km

Capital Hamburg

Germany's gateway to the world

Hamburg is the country's most important port and at the same time the largest foreign trade and transit center. Just one example: about 130 Japanese and over 20 Chinese trading companies are represented in Hamburg. The industrial region of the port includes shipyards, oil refineries and enterprises for processing foreign raw materials.

In addition to these typical port industries, aviation and astronautics, electronics, precision mechanics, optics and chemical industries are becoming increasingly important.

Green industrial city

Hamburg is the second largest industrial city in Germany and the center of an economic zone of 2.8 million people. And yet it is one of the “greenest” cities in the country thanks to its extensive parks (for example, the Plants and Flowers Park), alleys, arable land and gardens, forests, wetlands and heaths. The reunification of Germany returned to the port its rear resources, which it had previously enjoyed thanks to its extensive connections to the network of waterways. Thus, the city-state can again continue its traditions, again be a bridge between East and West.

In addition, Hamburg is a banking and service center in northern Germany. The fact that it is the most important consular city after New York underlines its international importance. "Congress Center", the venue for international specialized exhibitions, belongs to the most modern places convening conferences in Europe. Hamburg's role as a media center is undeniable; it is the seat of the largest publishing houses of German magazines, the German Press Agency (dpa), and numerous radio and television studios.

Citizenship and love of art

Hamburg has long been an influential city of culture. In 1678, Germany's first permanent opera and ballet theater was founded in the Hanseatic city: here George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) staged his first opera, Almira. The city's famous son is the composer Johannes Brahms (1833-1897). In 1767, the German Institute associated with the name of Lessing was founded national theater who won leading position mainly for its productions of Shakespeare's works. Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724-1803) and Matthias Claudius (1740-1815) were considered “literary authorities” in Hamburg at that time.

In our century, new, avant-garde, internationally sounding impulses in the development of opera were given by the intendant Rolf Liebermann, and in the development of the dramatic theater by the intendant Gustav Grundgens. The actor Hans Albers (1891-1960), born in Hamburg, remains unforgettable in the film role of Baron Munchausen. Today, the city is characterized by productions of musicals. Built especially for Andrew Lloyd Webber's Phantom of the Opera new theater"New Flora".

The generosity of citizens, an open love of art and a shrewd purchasing policy make it possible for the Hamburg Exhibition Hall, the Museum of Arts and Crafts and the Ethnographic Museum to have significant collections.

Hesse

Population 5.9 million

Area 21.114 sq. km

Capital Wiesbaden

Rhine-Main transport hub

Frankfurt (660,000 inhabitants) has become an important financial center in Germany, and its exhibitions and fairs are attractive due to the central position of Hesse. Numerous transport routes intersect here. Among European airports, Rhine-Main Airport, covering 17 square kilometers, has the largest cargo turnover and the second largest passenger traffic.

Industry and fine arts

The Rhine-Main region is the largest economic center in Germany, equal to Berlin and inferior to the Ruhr region. Companies such as Hoechst, Opel and Degussa are located here, among others.

Frankfurt am Main is the seat of most of the major German banks and many branches of foreign banks. Here the German Federal Bank supervises the stability of the German mark.

In the north of the earth, around Kassel, another industrial center developed with mechanical engineering, carriage building, locomotive building and automobile manufacturing. This city is known to art connoisseurs for its rich collections. Dutch painting and the world's largest exhibition of contemporary document art.

In the south of the country, in Offenbach, is the center of the leather industry. In Darmstadt there is a reputable Higher Technical School, Mathildenhöhe, an area that since 1899 has grown into the Darmshadt artists' colony (Art Nouveau museum). Frankfurt, where Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) was born, is also a city of art, theaters and publishing houses. Museum Embankment is constantly expanding. In addition, in the city center a new showroom"Shirn", and in 1991 the Museum of Modern Art. The International Book Fair, which annually awards the World Prize of the German Book Trade, is the largest book fair in the world.

The surroundings of the university cities of Marburg and Giessen, as well as Wetzlar, famous for its optical industry, are picturesque.

In the east of Hesse is the city of Fulda, a city of bishops with baroque architecture and rich history. The state capital of Wiesbaden (257,000 inhabitants) is not only the administrative center, but also an elegant resort with a popular gaming house.

Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

Population 1.89 million

Area 23.598 sq. km

Capital Schwerin

Land of a Thousand Lakes

None of the federal states today have such an agrarian character, none of them are so sparsely populated and none of them have such a varied sea coast as the new federal state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Its greatest wealth is undestroyed nature, water and its “thousand lakes.”

The striking brick Gothic architecture clearly points to the Hanseatic origins of the trading towns of Stralsund and Wismar, as well as the university towns of Greifswald (founded 1456) and Rostock. Centuries-old trade links these cities on the Baltic Sea coast with the Scandinavian countries. The Hanseatic city of Rostock is today the largest city on earth (250,000 inhabitants). After reunification, the capital became the city of Schwerin (130,000 inhabitants).

Nature and art

Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is a hilly area with alternating fields, meadows and forests. The largest Mecklenburg lake is Müritz (117 sq. km), along the eastern shore of which a wide reserve territory stretches. There are about 260 nature and landscape reserves in this land. Countless evidence of the great architectural history of the land has been preserved and is being restored today, such as the Schwerin Palace with 300 towers and turrets. The limestone cliffs on Rügen, the largest island in Germany (926 sq. km.), are noteworthy. Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) captured these rocks: the artist from Greifswald depicted this seascape in an emphatically romantic way. Fritz Reiter (1810-1874) described the region and its people realistically and with the peculiarities of the Low German dialect inherent in this area. In Güstrow, the sculptor and poet Ernst Barlach (1870-1938) devoted himself to his life's work. And Uwe Jonson (1934-1984) built a literary monument your homeland and its people.

Tourism - the industry of the future

The most important sectors of the economy are agriculture, farming and livestock breeding. Constant sources of income are sea and river fishing, the modernization and coordination of which with the changing needs of consumers is currently being persistently implemented. East German shipyards with corresponding subsuppliers are located on the coast. But tourism has the most favorable development opportunities. In 1992, about 10 million tourists visited Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Walking, including cycling, is very popular. The Earth is making enormous efforts to expand its tourism infrastructure. Responsible planners, however, ensure that the ever-increasing tourism does not lead to pollution of the landscape, nature and environment.

Lower Saxony

Population 7.5 million

Area 47.364 sq. km

Capital Hannover

Diversity of nature

The second largest land in Germany (47,364 sq. km) is divided into three large territories: the Harz, the Weser highlands and the North German Lowland with the Lüneburg Heath in the center. A special world is represented by the peat bogs of the Ems area, the marsh meadows behind the dikes of the North Sea and the East Frisian Islands in its shallow waters.

In Lower Saxony, major highways and railways intersect from north to south and from west to east. Here the Central German Canal connects the Rhine, Elbe and Oder and thus the inland waterways of Western and Eastern Europe. Mining school, Volkswagen workshop. Almost two-thirds of the land is under agricultural land. Widely represented in Lower Saxony food industry: Famous are the ham from Oldenburg and the honey from the Lüneburg Heath. Deep traditions in mining: great importance had the development of ore deposits in the Harz, back in the Middle Ages the imperial city of Goslar became rich thanks to silver mining, and in 1775 a school for miners and steelmakers was founded in Clausthal, which later became the world famous Mining Academy. Lyune6ypr has long been known for its salt. The Lower Saxony potash industry is an important sector of the economy. The third largest iron ore deposit in Europe is being developed in Salzgitter. Local oil and natural gas production covers approximately five percent of the country's needs. The Federal Office of Physics and Technology, the highest federal body for testing, calibration and approval, is located in Braunschweig, which, by the way, regulates the exact Central European time using a radio signal. Emden is the third largest German port on the North Sea. Large companies produce ships and cars here. One of the cities has become a symbol of the automotive industry: Wolfsburg. From here the Volkswagen car began its victorious march. The Volkswagen company is the largest enterprise on earth, and the Volkswagen Foundation is the largest non-governmental German foundation for the development of science.

Fair town Gainover, university town Göttingen. Of the 7.3 million inhabitants of the earth, half a million live in the capital of the state - Hanover. Hannover is a world-famous trade fair city: the latest developments are annually demonstrated at the industry trade fair and exhibition "CEBIT", a major trade fair for communications technology. Major project future - organization and holding of a world exhibition in 2000.

The university city of Göttingen played a significant role in political history and history of natural sciences. In 1537, a group of Göttingen professors, the Göttingen Seven, protested in a liberal spirit against the sovereign's abolition of the land constitution. Most of them, dismissed after this, met in 1848 as deputies of the Frankfurt National Assembly. The mathematician and astronomer Carl Friedrich Gauss (1771-1859) also worked in Göttingen at that time. In the 20th century, decisive impulses in the development of atomic physics were generated in Göttingen. It is enough to mention only Nobel laureates Max Born (1882-1970) and Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976).

North Rhine-Westphalia

Population 17.7 million

Area 34.071 sq. km

Capital Dusseldorf

Energy hub in the center of Europe

As a political unit, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia has been known since the reign of the British occupation authorities, when in 1946 most of the former Rhine province of Prussia and the province of Westphalia with the state of Lippe-Detmold were united with it. The area of ​​North Rhine-Westphalia is equal to Belgium and Luxembourg combined. The largest land in terms of population, it has over 17 million inhabitants and is the largest industrial center in Europe: more than half of the population lives in large cities with over 500,000 inhabitants.

The Ruhr region is a continuous chain of cities, home to about 7.5 million people, and the largest European industrial region. This energy center country, uniting 31 power plants.

Tradition and innovation

It took North Rhine-Westphalia decades to transform its traditionally coal- and steel-based economy, through enormous efforts and collaboration between entrepreneurs, the state and the government, to meet the demands of the global market. Hundreds of thousands of jobs have been created by the emergence of innovative industries: today, promising industries and global companies operate here, for example, Klöckner-Humbold-Deutz, the world's largest engine manufacturer. The economic dynamics of the land is also evidenced by the fact that, along with large-scale production, there are 450,000 small and medium-sized firms equipped modern technology, such as textile production in Krefeld and cutting in Solingen. An expanding industry in the service sector is the insurance industry.

Dortmund is home to the largest German breweries. The north of the earth is the center of agriculture and livestock breeding. The Münster region is famous for horse breeding and equestrian sports. Stormy economic life pulsates through a dense network of highways, railways and waterways. The transport flows of Europe converge in it, connecting numerous large cities: Cologne, Essen, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Duisburg, Bochum, Wuppertal, Bielefeld, Gelsenkirchen, Solingen, Leverkusen and Aachen.

Duisburg is the world's largest inland navigation harbor.

The mining region is changing its face. Where once factory chimneys smoked or transporters moved, parks are now being built. Reclamation is underway in the Rhine brown coal basin open-pit mining. The Sauerland and Bergisches Land are favorite recreation areas for the inhabitants of the Rhine and Ruhr. North Rhine-Westphalia has 44 balneological and climatic resorts. Cologne, the largest city in the world today (over one million inhabitants) and having been important since Roman times, is famous for its Romanesque churches and Gothic cathedral, as well as museums (Wallraf-Richartz Museum/Ludwig Museum, Roman-German Museum, etc.). The capital Düsseldorf (576.000), one of the most important financial centers, is popular as a city of art thanks to its significant painting collections, the German Opera on the Rhine (Düsseldorf/Duisburg) and the famous drama theater. The university in Münster in Westphalia is famous, where the city center is especially beautiful. Universities in Münster and other cities in the world form the densest network of universities in Europe. South of Cologne is Bonn, until 1949 a medium-sized university city, since 1949 the temporary capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. After Berlin is awarded this honor and the seat of government is transferred to the Spree, Bonn will remain an important role as the administrative and scientific center of the country.

Rhineland-Palatinate

Population 3.8 million

Area 19.846 sq. km

Capital Mainz

Not only Rhineland romance

Rhineland-Palatinate was created in 1946 from Bavarian, Hessian and Prussian territories that had never before been under one roof. But over time, Rhineland-Palatinate formed into a single whole and acquired its own appearance. If after its creation the land was considered the poorest, today it has the highest share of exports, it is home to the chemical giant in Europe - the BASF company in Ludwigshafen, as well as the largest European radio and television station - the Second German Television Program in Mainz (ZDF). Every year, seven million people come to Rhineland-Palatinate for recreation and treatment at the resorts of Neuenahr, Bad Ems and Bad Bertrich. In the Middle Mountains with its volcanic rocks there are many mineral springs. Vineyards in the Palatinate, Rhine, Mosel and Aare produce two-thirds of Germany's grape harvest. Spacious forests are a significant source of income for forestry.

Modern history

Celts, Romans, Burgundians and Franconians settled on the Rhine. Here in Speyer, Worms and Mainz there are large imperial cathedrals from the medieval period. The Elector of Mainz was the Archchancellor of the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". The oldest synagogue in Germany was located in Worms (founded in 1034 in the Romanesque style). In 1521, the reformer Martin Luther in the Reichstag of Worms refused to refute his theses; in Koblenz, 300 years later, the liberal newspaper Rhenish Merkur fought against Napoleonic domination and censorship in the press; in 1832, the first mass republican-democratic meeting took place in the Hambach Palace. The World Museum of Printing Arts - the Gutenberg Museum in Mainz displays its treasures in the city where the inventor of printing with movable type, Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1468), was born, whose epoch-making invention actually helped Luther carry out the Reformation. Another world reformer was born in Trier - philosopher and critic of national economics Karl Marx (1818-1883).

Artery Rhine

At a length of 290 km, the Rhine is the main economic artery of the earth. There are three large cities on the Rhine: the chemical industry center Ludwigshafen (158,000 inhabitants), the state capital Mainz (175,000) and at the confluence of the Rhine and Mosel - the service center Koblenz (107,000). The two-thousand-year-old Roman city of Trier on the Mosel and Kaiserslautern, where in 1152 Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa built his “palatinate”, court (“city of Barbarossa”), has less than a hundred thousand inhabitants. Among the most beautiful areas of Germany is the Rhine Valley between Bingen and Bonn, covered in legends, adorned with fortresses, glorified by countless poets, painters and musicians. The valleys of the tributaries of the Moselle, Nahe, Lahn and Ara are of charming beauty. The German wine route runs at the foot of the Palatinate Forest. The incomparable reflection of this charming hilly landscape was captured by the painter Max Slevogt (1868-1932). Many of his works are exhibited, in particular, in the palace "Villa Ludwigshöhe" near Edenkoben. Like the paintings of the artist Hans Poormann, a native of the Palatinate (1880-1966), they also decorate the chancellor's office in Bonn today.

Republic of Saxony

Population 4.7 million

Area 18.338 sq. km

Capital Dresden

"Little Paris" and "Florence on the Elbe"

Among the new states, Saxony has the highest population density and the highest degree of industrialization. More than one fifth of Saxony's 4.9 million inhabitants live in Leipzig (530,000) and Dresden (501,000).

Leipzig, a traditional city of fairs and "little Paris" (Goethe), was one of the centers of non-violent resistance to the SED regime. Large demonstrations on Mondays culminated on October 9, 1989 in a single call: “We are the people!” And Dresden, the “pearl of the Baroque,” ​​almost completely burned in the fire of aerial bombing in 1945, became the capital of the newly restored Republic of Saxony.

The tradition of porcelain making, which began in 1710 at the porcelain manufactory in Meissen, continues. A year earlier, Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682-1719) invented a recipe for producing “white gold” instead of a recipe for making gold.

Handicrafts from the Ore Mountains are known all over the world: wood carving and bobbin lace weaving. Chemnitz, with its Higher Technical School and research institutes, relies on mechanical engineering, and for some time now also on microelectronics. Zwickau is a city of automobile manufacturing, but instead of the unforgettable Trabant (Trabi) small car, it now produces Polo, a small car from Volkswagen. Leipzig, once Germany's largest trading center and publishing center, thanks to the famous Leipzig Fair, the gateway to Eastern Europe, intends to continue its tradition as a fair city.

Dresden, popularly called "Florence on the Elbe", hopes to regain its past glory cultural center. To this day it is a large music center with a restored original opera house, built by Gottfried Semper in 1870-1878. in the style of the Italian Renaissance, the Dresden State Orchestra, the Kreuzhor boys choir. He is Eldorado visual arts with its very rich collections of jewelry under the "Green Vault" ("Grunes Gewölbe") and masterpieces of the masters European painting V " Art gallery old masters."

The Elbe sandstone mountains of Saxon Switzerland are an attractive holiday destination not only because ideal conditions for mountaineering. Great efforts are being made in the field of tourism, such as the project "Silver Route of the Ore Mountains", on which - following the former transport route of the precious metal - some 150 attractions of Saxony can be found.

Creative activity and entrepreneurship

Saxony has filled more than one chapter in German cultural history.

The works of Johann Sebastian Bach (he was born in 1685 in Eisenach), who from 1723 until his death worked in Leipzig (1750), continue to remain an integral part of the repertoire of the church boys choir ("Tomanerhor"), which continues musical traditions.

The encyclopedist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) discovered binary system numbers and - independently of Newton - infinitesimal calculus.

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781), in his drama “Nathan the Wise,” sang humanity and tolerance.

The composers Robert Schumann (1810-1856) and Richard Wagner (1813-1883) were also born Saxons.

Saxony-Anhalt

Population 2.82 million

Area 20.443 sq. km

Capital Magdeburg

Classic middle Germany

Saxony-Anhalt- classic middle Germany on the Elbe and Saale: the area between the Harz and the most high peak The 1142 m high Brocken (in Faust Goethe calls it Bloxberg) and Fleming, the hinterland to the east, between the floodplain meadows to the north and the vineyard slopes along the Saale and Unstrut rivers.

The Romanesque cathedral in Halberstadt and the thousand-year-old speech monument of the "Merseburg Spells" confirm historical continuity from the time of Charlemagne. Many places breathe the past.

The former centers of the chemical industry and brown coal mining Halle, Bitterfeld, Leuna, Wolfen and Merseburg are undergoing a complex process of restructuring - the result of the wrong industrial policy of the former GDR. As in other new lands, large investments will be needed here for many years to renovate the environment and develop new infrastructure. The center of traditional chemistry must be preserved. Opening in 1992 in new lands of the first institute named after. Max Planck in Halle was a further step in the development of the economic zone.

Evidence of a great past

When Magdeburg, home to the center of heavy engineering, the Technical University and the Medical Academy, became the state capital in 1990, its traditional rivalry with Halle ended, at least in this respect.

Both cities have worthy evidence of the medieval period: the cathedral of the imperial and episcopal city of Magdeburg is the largest sacred building in Germany; The cathedral, market church and Red Tower dominate the historic center of the old salt town of Halle, birthplace of the composer George Frideric Handel (1685-1759). The German-American artist Lionel Feininger (1871-1956) beautifully captured old Halle motifs in a modern way - his works are exhibited alongside paintings by his contemporaries in State Gallery Moritzburg.

But one of the outstanding places in the geography of art of the 20th century was the city of Dessau thanks to its Bauhaus school, which became an era in architecture.

Tangermünde, with its brick architecture, is considered the “Rothenburg of the north”. The half-timbered diamond of Wernigerode is known as the “colorful city of the Harz”. The medieval figures at Naumburg Cathedral are ancient examples of realistic, life-like depictions. Martin Luther (1483-1546) was born and died in Eisleben; he is buried in the palace church in Wittenberg, on the door of which he is said to have nailed his 95 theses in 1517. In the 16th century she worked here and famous family painters Cranach. At princely court Johann Sebastian Bach wrote his six Brandenburg Concertos in Köthen. The physicist Otto von Goericke was the burgomaster of Magdeburg, in 1663 he proved the existence of atmospheric pressure by the “Magdeburg hemispheres”.

Schleswig-Holstein

Population 2.6 million

Area 15.731 sq. km

Capital Kiel

Indivisible forever

Schleswig-Holstein - the only land in a country located on two seas: the North and Baltic. An ancient document says about both parts of the earth that they “will forever be indivisible.” Therefore, unlike other German “hyphenated states” formed by the occupation authorities after 1945, they have long been referred to together.

Schleswig-Holstein is a sparsely populated land with 2.6 million inhabitants. The state capital Kiel (246,000 inhabitants) and the Hanseatic city of Lübeck (215,000) owe their importance to ports on the Baltic Sea. Lübeck-Travemünde is the most important German ferry port.

Along with shipping, the shipbuilding industry developed significantly. When shipbuilding experienced a crisis in the late sixties, some of the firms successfully switched to the production of special ships.

Monument of world culture and world literature

Lübeck, on whose 500-year-old city gate (Holstentor) with Latin letters The motto “Harmony in the home, peace outside” was inscribed and included in the UNESCO list of world cultural monuments.

IN world literature included novels by the Lübeck-born writer Thomas Mann (1875-1955), who was awarded the Nobel Prize in the field of literature. In May 1993, the Buddenbrook House was opened as a memorial and research site in the home of Thomas and Heinrich Mann's (1871-1950) grandparents.

Republic of Thuringia

Population 2.57 million

Area 16.251 sq. km

Capital Erfurt

Green heart of Germany

Because of its position and forest cover, Thuringia is called " green heart Germany".

The capital of the state Erfurt (209,000 inhabitants), called the “garden city”, was founded in the 8th century. Unusual in the old town a large number of houses of patricians, churches and monasteries - museum of architecture on outdoors. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach in 1685 (died 1750 in Leipzig), the scion of a wide-ranging family of musicians.

He hid in nearby Wartburg in 1521-1522. Martin Luther. Here he translated the New Testament into German - an important step in the development of the modern German literary language. In 1817, in Wartburg, representatives of student corporations swore allegiance to a united Germany.

Particularism, culture and barbarism

Once upon a time, Thuringia reflected especially sharply the boring fragmentation of Germany. This cultural particularism has brought positive results, since the sovereigns of small states willingly and often at the expense of their subjects, who had to pay heavy taxes, took on the role of philanthropists.

The most prominent philanthropist of the land was Duke Karl-August von Sachsen-Weimar (1757-1828). He invited the Shakespeare translator and romancer Christoph Martin Wieland (1733-1813), the poet and linguist Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), and most importantly, Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) to his residence city of Weimar. . Since 1800, the city has become a source of spiritual energy, and not only German. In Weimar Goethe created his most famous works, such as the final edition of his essay on Faust. From 1787 to 1789 and from 1799 to 1805. Friedrich Schiller also lived in Weimar and, in particular, wrote his “William Tell” here. In the second half of the last century, in a city where art is valued, Franz Liszt (1811-1886) gave concerts and wrote music. In 1919, the Bauhaus was created here, an educational institution in which the division of art, crafts and technology was to be overcome. In 1925, the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, later to Berlin, where it became a victim of the barbarism that began with Hitler's rise to power in 1933. This year also meant the end of the first German Republic, "Weimar", the constitution of which was drawn up in Weimar in 1919.

Industry and crafts

In the Middle Ages, many Thuringian cities, particularly Erfurt, became rich thanks to the trade in woad, a dye plant that colors Blue colour. Later, other important industries developed, such as the production of tool machines and precision optical instruments, which brought world fame the city of Jena and the mechanic Carl Zeiss. Cars have been produced in Eisenach for a long time: during the GDR - "Wart6urg", after the unification of Germany, the companies "Opel" and "Bosch" operate there.

Population 1.1 million

Area 2,570 sq. km

Capital Saarbrücken

City, land, river

The Saar, a tributary of the Moselle, gives the land its name (the Saar Canal between Dillingen and Konz/Moselle makes the Saar navigable). The Saar makes its way through the ridge of the Middle Mountains in the wooded Hunsrück with picturesque meandering landscapes. In its lower reaches, grapes are cultivated. The state capital of Saarbrücken (192,000 inhabitants) is a city of fairs and congresses. It successfully combines the French lifestyle with the German one. The Saarans know how to enjoy what the kitchen prepares and the cellar stores. Son of the city, director Max Ophüls (1902-1957) made film history with charming comedies such as Flirtation. Higher and secondary specialized educational institutions of the state are concentrated in Saarbrücken, including a university, higher art and higher education. music school, where many students from neighboring France study. The name of the city of Saar-Louis recalls that a good 300 years ago, the French king Ludwig XIV founded a fortress here to protect his conquests in western Germany. Today it is an industrial city (automotive, steel construction, food processing and electrical industries).

Central European landscape

Economics, like science, has long removed all border barriers. Saarland, Lorraine and Luxembourg are increasingly merging, the abbreviation Saarland-Laur-Lux refers to one of the central regions of Europe. Traditional industries of interregional importance are the glass and ceramic industries. The products of such a large company as Villeroy & Boch are different high quality and a wealth of shapes and colors. Although the Saarland has suffered somewhat due to the global crisis in the coal and steel industries, funding for structural change and innovation is already creating the conditions for hosting the important industry of the future. Currently, the majority of Saarans work in the capital goods industry and the service sector.

VIII . Churches and religious communities

“Freedom of religion, conscience and freedom of religious and ideological adherence are inviolable. The unhindered exercise of religious rites is guaranteed.” Every citizen of the Federal Republic of Germany regards this provision of the Basic Law (Article 4) as a normal fundamental right.

Over 56 million people in Germany consider themselves adherents of any Christian denomination. Of these, almost 29.5 million are evangelicals, over 28 million are Catholics, and a minority of the population belongs to other Christian communities.

According to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, church and state were separated, although historical connections preserved. Created at that time legal status basically exists to this day, because the corresponding provisions of the Weimar Constitution were transferred to the Basic Law. In Germany there is no state church, that is, there is no connection between the state and church administration, and therefore the church is not under the control of the state. Churches have the status of independent public legal corporations. Relations with the state are often called partnerships. They are based on, in addition to the constitution, various concordats and treaties. The state guarantees churches property rights. It provides subsidies for the salaries of priests and assumes all or part of the costs of maintaining certain church institutions, such as kindergartens, hospitals and schools. Churches have the right to impose taxes on their members, which are usually levied by the state. Future theologians are trained mostly in state universities. Churches have a documented right to participate in joint decisions in the appointment of teachers to theological departments. Social and charity- important component public life. It is indispensable in hospitals, nursing homes and care homes, in consultations and services, in schools and other educational institutions.

Evangelical Church

The Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) is a community of 24 largely independent Lutheran, Unitarian and Reformed churches. Since 1991, the EKD has once again become a pan-German association. The borders of the state churches intersect with the borders of the federal states. The highest church bodies are the synod and the church conference, the highest governing body is the EKD Council. The Consistory in Hanover is the central governing body of the EKD. Evangelical churches are members of the World Council of Churches. They work closely with the Roman Catholic Church.

Catholic Church

The Catholic Church is represented by 23 bishoprics, of which five are archbishoprics. After the unification, plans arose for a new organization of those territories that previously belonged to the Conference of Bishops established in 1676. It is envisaged to raise two departments for episcopal affairs and one apostolic administration to the rank of bishoprics and to form a new bishopric in Hamburg. Archbishops, bishops and vicars - over 70 in total - hold plenums of the German Bishops' Conference every spring and autumn. The secretariat is located in Bonn.

The impulses received from the Second Vatican Council regarding the participation of Catholic laity in the work of the Church are put into practice by elected lay representatives. They represent over 100 Catholic unions and are united in the Central Committee of German Catholics.

Other religious communities

Other communities include, in particular, free churches. The two largest evangelical free churches, the Methodists and the Evangelical Congregation, united in 1968 to form the Evangelical Methodist Church. Besides them there are Baptists. After the 1st Vatican Council, the Old Catholic Church broke away from the Roman Catholic Church in 1870. Mennonites, Quakers and the Salvation Army are known for their social activities.

In 1933, about 530,0001 Jews lived in the German Empire. Today, after the National Socialist genocide, approximately 40,000 Jews live in Germany, united in Jewish communities. The largest Jewish community is in Berlin, with almost 1,000 members, communities in Frankfurt am Main and Munich with approximately 5,000 members each. After unification, traditional communities in East Germany, for example, in Dresden and Leipzig, are again actively developing. The leading organization of Jewish communities is the Central Council of Jews in Germany. Founded in Heidelberg graduate School Jewish Studies, which enjoys worldwide recognition.

Due to the presence of a large number of foreign workers and members of their families, religious communities, which were previously almost non-existent in Germany, have acquired great importance. This applies to Greek Orthodox Church and especially Islam.

IX. Conclusion.

For more than four decades, there was intense economic competition between the two German states. History has shown that the Stalinist model of socialism in the GDR, as in the USSR, was on the verge of complete bankruptcy by the end of the 80s. The logical result of “real socialism” on German soil was the resolution of the People's Chamber of the GDR on August 23, 1990 on the entry of the GDR into the German Democratic Republic, which occurred on October 3, 1990. From that moment on, the laws of the Federal Republic of Germany extended to the territory of the GDR.

Germany is one of the industrial giants modern world. In the old lands alone, industrial production reaches 1 trillion. marks. The most important industries are automotive, general mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and metallurgy.

In socio-economic and political development In Germany, an important role was played by the peculiarities of its economic and political-geographical position. Great benefits are provided by the location in the center of Europe among economically highly developed countries at the intersection of trans-European highways of latitudinal and meridional directions. One of the important advantages is Germany’s coastal location and proximity to large port cities of neighboring countries (Rotterdam, Antwerp, etc.)

The policy of Germany is aimed at strengthening economic independence: the introduction of a single European currency, the reduction of customs duties on individual species goods, etc. Germany has a very active social policy of the state, which ensures social stability. Germany by degree social security wage labor is not inferior to Sweden.

Due to its economic and favorable geographical location in the center of Europe, Germany is one of the most dynamically developing European countries, which allows it to play a major role in the European Community.

Based on the above, it can be assumed that at the turn of 2000, a state was formed on the European continent, which in the next century will play one of the leading roles in the politics, economics and culture of not only European-Asian states, but also in the international arena.

X . Bibliography.

1. “Countries and Peoples” in 20 volumes - vol. Foreign Europe. Redkol. V.P.Maksakovsky (chief editor) and others - M.: Mysl, 1979.

2. “Countries and Peoples” in 20 volumes - vol. Western Europe. Redkol. V.P.Maksakovsky (chief editor) and others - M.: Mysl, 1979.

3. "Germany. The country introduces itself.” Friedrich Reinecke Verlag

Editors and translators: Larisa Bendix, Andreas Dorfmann 1995

4. “ Germany” publishing house “Societats-Verlag” in cooperation with the Office of Press and Information of the Federal Government (Bonn), 1996.

5. Magazine “KulturChronik” publishing house Inter Nations Se.V.(IN), 1998 G .

In 1949, four years after the end of World War II, two German states were formed: the German Democratic Republic, GDR, in the east, and the Federal Republic of Germany in the west. Although each had its own government, they were not completely independent. In the GDR, policy was dictated by the Soviet Union, and the Federal Republic of Germany was influenced by Great Britain, France and the United States.

In March 1952, the USSR proposed to the United States, Great Britain and France to peacefully resolve the German issue: the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany should again be united into one independent state and make it politically neutral. But members of the Western Union were against such a plan. They wanted Germany to belong to the West. They believed that a neutral Germany would fall under the influence of the Soviet Union. The then Liberal-Conservative government also strongly advocated an alliance with the West.

After 1952, differences between the two Germanys intensified. In 1956, countries acquired their own armies. The GDR became a member of the Warsaw Union, and the Federal Republic of Germany joined NATO.

While in the GDR economic problems grew like a snowball, business in Germany developed and flourished. The standard of living in the two countries was strikingly different. This was the first reason why thousands of East Germans fled to West Germany. Eventually, the GDR closed its borders and introduced armed control over them. In 1961, the last stone was laid in the wall dividing the two Germanys.

In the years Cold War, from 1952 to 1969, the two German states were in contact only through trade. In June 1953, East Berlin and other cities eastern Germany rebelled against the communist dictatorship and economy, but soviet tanks calmed the popular unrest. In Germany, the majority of citizens were satisfied with the government's policies. However, here too in the 60s there was a wave of protests and student demonstrations against capitalism and too close ties with the United States.

The first political negotiations between the two countries began in 1969. This was the so-called “Ostpolitik” of the then Chancellor Willy Brandt and his government of Social Democrats and Liberals. In 1972, the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany signed an agreement “On the Fundamentals of Relations.” The agreement improved political and economic contacts between the two countries. More and more West Germans were able to visit their relatives in the GDR, but not many East Germans were allowed to travel west.

In the fall of 1989, Hungary opened its Austrian borders, allowing GDR citizens the opportunity to flee to western Germany. Many people left their country this way. Others fled to the German embassy in Warsaw and Prague and remained there until they received permission to enter the Western republic.

Mass demonstrations soon broke out in Leipzig, Dresden and other eastern cities. At first it was only about free travel to Western countries and especially Western Germany, free elections and a free economy. But soon calls for the unification of the two Germanys began to grow louder. Opposition groups emerged, and after a few weeks the SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) resigned.

The process of German unification, which lasted in 1989-90 in the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, is called die Wende by the Germans. It includes four main periods:

1. Peaceful Revolution, a time of mass protests and demonstrations (held on Mondays) directed against the political system of the GDR and for human rights. This period lasted throughout the autumn of 1989.
2. The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989 and the Politburo press conference, where Günter Schabowski announced the opening of checkpoints (border crossings)
3. The GDR's transition to democracy, which in March 1990 led to the first and only democratic elections to the People's Chamber.
4. The process of German reunification with the signing of the unification treaty in August 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement regarding Germany in September and, finally, the annexation of five German states to the Federal Republic of Germany.