The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic: two different Germanys. State and political development of Germany after the Second World War

State structure

Education October 7, 1949 German Democratic Republic was an act of national self-help by democratic forces Germany. This was their response to the split Germany, the expression of which was the creation of the Federal Republic on September 7, 1949, carried out contrary to the principles of the Potsdam Agreement accepted by the four great powers. Under these conditions, the proclamation of a peace-loving, democratic German state became a matter of vital importance for the German people.

While creating GDR it was about thwarting the attempts of the Western powers to transfer all Germany into the hands of the then resurgent German imperialism and provide the democratic forces Germany a solid state foundation. Therefore, state formation GDR relied on a broad popular movement that embraced all strata of our people.

GDR- a state in which the working class, in alliance with the class of cooperative peasants and other sections of the working people, exercises political power and leads the cause of socialism to victory. Workers are the masters of the economy and the state. They direct political and economic development in accordance with the will and interests of the majority of citizens. The most important means of production - factories, minerals, means of transport and large estates - belong to the people.

Workers and peasants exercise power through popular representations, government, bodies government controlled, judiciary, police, etc. The workers' and peasants' power relies on the forces of the National Democratic Front Germany, which nominates candidates for popular representation and maintains constant communication between the state apparatus and the population. In addition, citizens have broad rights that allow them to directly participate in government activities.

A prerequisite for victory in GDR socialist and democratic forces saw the unity of the working class, which found its most vivid embodiment in the creation of united trade unions and, first of all, in the unification on April 21, 1946 of two parties of the working class - the Communist Party Germany and the Social Democratic Party Germany- to the Socialist United Party Germany.

German Democratic Republic- a sovereign state that decides independently, at its own discretion, its internal and external affairs and respects the rights of other states and generally recognized norms of international law. Thanks to the full participation of the population in solving all political and economic problems, thanks to the influence that the population has on legislation, government bodies and justice, in GDR for the first time in history Germany the people exercise their sovereign rights.

TERRITORY AND POPULATION

Territory German Democratic Republic is 107,834 square kilometers. In the north it is washed by the waters of the Baltic Sea; in the east, the Oder and Neisse rivers form the world's border with the Polish People's Republic. In the West GDR borders Western Germany; in the south the Ore Mountains connect GDR and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. The length of the land borders is 456 kilometers in the east, 1,381 kilometers in the west and 430 kilometers in the south.

Elbe (1112 km) and Oder (861 km)- the longest rivers GDR. The highest mountain peaks are the Fichtelberg in the Ore Mountains (1243 l*) and the Brocken in the Harz (1142 l*). Southern and southeastern part GDR occupy medium-high altitude mountains, turning into a hilly foothill strip in the north and then into the North German Lowland. Numerous lakes located in the area Berlin and to the north of it, give the area a special flavor. Territory GDR covered with thick modern network automotive and railways and cut through by internal waterways. Along with this everything higher value acquires air services operated by government organization"Deutsche Luft-Hansa".

IN GDR 17.3 million people live (as of December 31, 1959). The population density is cohabitants per square kilometer. Capital GDR is Berlin. In a democratic Berlin 1.1 million people live. Territory GDR divided into 14 districts: Potsdam, Frankfurt an der Oder and Cottbus in Brandenburg; Neubrandenburg, Rostock and Schwerin in Mecklenburg; Magdeburg and Halle in Saxony-Anhalt; Erfurt, Suhl and Gera in the state of Thuringia; Dresden, Leipzig and Karl-Marx-Stadt in Saxony. Districts unite 24 cities district subordination and 192 rural districts with 9556 communities. 213 communities have more than 10 thousand inhabitants each, and 11 cities - Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Karl-Marx-Stadt, Halle (Saale), Magdeburg, Erfurt, Rostock, Zwickau, Potsdam and Gera - have more than 100 thousand each. GDR- a highly developed socialist industrial country. The share of industry, trade and transport in the total volume of the aggregate social product is 90.1 percent, agriculture and forestry - 9.9 percent. 68 percent of all workers are employed in industry, trade and transport, and 18 percent in agriculture and forestry.

POLITICAL FRAMEWORK

What is the basis of the socialist system?

The socialist system means that the exploitation of man by man is eliminated and the working people themselves decide their own fate. Monopolists and landowners were expropriated, their enterprises became the property of the people, and the land belonged to the peasants. Therefore, monopolists and landowners can no longer dictate what the size should be wages and what should be the length of the working day, who should be hired or who should be thrown out onto the street. The labor of millions of workers no longer serves to increase the personal wealth and power of individual monopolists. The results of labor are made available to the workers themselves and their society; the growth of production serves to increase personal and social wealth. Those who work are honored and respected, and work is also a measure of remuneration.

One of the decisive prerequisites of the socialist system is that the most important enterprises belong to the whole people and are led by representatives of the working class. In 1960, the share of people's enterprises in total industrial output GDR was 89.1 percent. In agriculture, cooperative production achieved a complete victory in 1960.

Such transformations are possible only in conditions when power is in the hands of the people. The leading role is played by the working class, led by its party - the SED. In popular representations, in the state apparatus, in judicial and economic bodies, in scientific, cultural and educational institutions, leading positions belong to representatives of the working class and peasantry, intelligentsia and other working strata.

This alignment of political forces guarantees systematic development, which is reflected in national economic plans covering the entire economic, political and cultural life. The plans, for example, establish what share of the income of people's enterprises is allocated to the construction of new industrial facilities, to raising the living standards of workers, to the construction of housing and cultural institutions, to social security, etc.

Of course, in a country with a socialist system, domestic and foreign policies are characterized by a desire for peace and the well-being of all people. Therefore, the People's Chamber, the State Council, the government GDR turned to West German government bodies with a number of proposals serving the cause of maintaining peace. However, as long as the monopolists profiting from the arms race and the instigators of the policy of aggression try to destroy this new socialist system, the socialist states will be forced to maintain armed forces equipped with excellent technology to protect their peoples.

Is the GDR a legitimate state?

GDR- not only the legitimate state, but also the only legitimate German state. This fact arises from many circumstances, rooted partly in history, partly in modernity. The most important circumstances are:

IN GDR the only correct conclusions have been drawn from the past. The arms manufacturers and junkers responsible for starting two world wars were expropriated. Along with them, the militarists also lost power. Since then, state power has been in the hands of workers and peasants, who have entered into a strong, reliable alliance with other working sections of the population. Here, therefore, the democratic principle “All state power comes from the people” was first implemented. The state is headed by political figures who - being workers themselves - spend their entire lives fighting for the interests of the working people.

The principles of the anti-Hitler coalition enshrined in the Potsdam Agreement, for the implementation of which millions of people in many countries of the world gave their lives in the fight against German militarism and fascism, became GDR reality. The struggle to preserve peace is the main content of politics GDR. This is evidenced, for example, by the address of the Chairman of the State Council GDR Walter Ulbricht to the government of the Federal Republic of Germany, December 18, 1960. In this appeal, the Bonn government was asked to reach an agreement with GDR about maintaining peace initially for 10 years. This would create the preconditions for peaceful reunification and for pursuing a peaceful policy of a united Germany. So thanks to his peaceful policy GDR instills confidence in every German that it is a reliable stronghold< мирного будущего для него и его детей. Уже одно это делает GDR the only legitimate German state. Legality GDR is also expressed in its sovereignty. The republic resolves all its internal and external issues independently, without outside interference. In the territory GDR there are no occupying forces, while in Western Germany they have extremely broad rights. Participation in the Warsaw Pact in no way affects sovereignty GDR. Therefore, the republic was able to make 150 proposals aimed at peaceful reunification Germany. And the West German government is prohibited by the Bonn and Paris agreements from any independent actions regarding reunification. That's why GDR- the only German state that has a real reunification program and pursues a national policy.

Development GDR corresponds to the democratic principles of international law, and its policies comply with the UN Charter.

Chairman of the State Council GDR Walter Ulbricht noted in a policy statement of the State Council made in the People's Chamber on October 4, 1960:

"He who doubts the legitimacy GDR, also doubts the legitimacy of the people’s struggle against the bloody regime of Hitler’s fascism, the policy of which is continued by the anti-democratic state of Western Germany».

Otherwise it will be the case with Federal Republic, whose government claims to be the only legitimate state. But how can a state in which the dark past has come to life again be considered legitimate? Germany and in which international law is violated?

The same forces that once supported the Hitler regime are now located in Western Germany economic power, which increased even more during this time. They once again dominate the state apparatus, using proxies figures such as Strauss and Schroeder. Over a thousand members of Hitler's emergency and military courts are in charge of the justice authorities, the Bundeswehr is headed by 140 Hitlerite generals, command posts in the police are occupied by SS and Gestapo thugs. The old, outdated rules again in Western Germany. Therefore, basic rights are violated, democratic parties and organizations are prohibited. The population, contrary to the constitution, is deprived of the right to express their opinion on such vital important issues, such as universal conscription, equipping the Bundeswehr with atomic weapons, etc. National polls on these problems were prohibited. ^

International legal principles of the Potsdam Agreement on peaceful, anti-militarist development Germany betrayed in Western Germany oblivion; the liquidation of monopolies, agrarian, administrative, judicial, school reforms, reform in the field of culture were not put on the agenda at all or were sabotaged at the first attempt to carry them out.

The purge of the West German state apparatus from Brown Shirts is being sabotaged. Revanchism flourished in full bloom. The leadership pursues the same aggressive goals as Wilhelm II and Hitler. At present, the policy of the German government is entirely subordinated to plans for atomic weapons, which threaten the lives of the German people and the peoples of Europe.

The Bonn government chose the atomic weapons of the Bundeswehr over peace and security. By concluding the so-called “General Agreement”, it thereby transferred the matter of reunification to Germany into the hands of the Western powers. Now it openly seeks to seize GDR. For this reason, it rejected all proposals GDR to ease tensions and peaceful reunification. West German citizens wishing to exercise their right to self-determination and advocating peace and reunification Germany on democratic principles, are persecuted and thrown into prison. Thus, Western Germany- a state that threatens the lives of the people and betrays national interests cannot claim to be considered legitimate.

Is there only one party in the GDR?

IN GDR there are five parties, namely: Socialist Unity Party Germany(SED), Peasant Democratic Party Germany(CMR), Liberal Democratic Party Germany(LDPD), Christian Democratic Union Germany(CDSG), National Democratic Party Germany(NDPG).

Individual parties represent the interests of certain classes or segments of the population. The SED is a party of the working class. The CMR represents primarily the interests of cooperative peasants. Christians who advocate peace and progress unite mainly in the HDSG. The LDPD consists of members of craft production cooperatives and progressive representatives of the petty and middle bourgeoisie.

The NPD also appeals to various circles of the middle class and to former military personnel who have broken with their past.

Why is the SED the leading party?

The SED is the party of the working class, the class that creates the largest part of the material values ​​necessary for life. As the party of the largest, most progressive and most consistent class in the struggle for peace and democracy, it has a leading role in political life GDR. And in terms of the number of its members and supporters, it is the most powerful party. Along with the workers, who make up the overwhelming majority of SED members, this party includes representatives of all other sections of the working people. Members of this party lead many decisive sectors in the state, economic and cultural fields.

Unlike the major West German parties, the SED carried out its 1946 program. Under her leadership, the working class, peasantry, intelligentsia and other sections of the working people made the greatest revolution in history Germany- transition from capitalism to socialism. Major economic, social and cultural reforms in GDR were mainly carried out on her initiative. At the suggestion of the SED, the most important measures in economic, cultural and social construction were carried out GDR. The SED has developed, for example, projects for successfully completed five-year plans and the current seven-year plan, proposals for further democratization public life and by systematically raising the living standards of the population.

At the Fifth Congress of the SED in July 1958, the directives of the seven-year plan were presented to the public. The implementation of this plan will prove the superiority of the socialist economic system GDR over the monopoly-capitalist system of Western Germany. Even today there is no doubt that by fulfilling this plan, the working people will ensure the victory of the cause of socialism in GDR.

As a Marxist party, the SED personifies the best traditions of the German working class, systematically implementing the old testaments of the socialist labor movement. Under her leadership, as well as with the participation of the other four parties, trade unions and other mass organizations in GDR Socialism is being built. At the same time, the policy of the SED is aimed at involving all layers of workers and private entrepreneurs in the cause of socialist construction through persuasion and demonstration of successes. As a result, every citizen GDR sees a reliable prospect in socialism.

The SED is also the party that has put forward numerous important proposals aimed at general controlled disarmament, the conclusion of a peace treaty with both German states and reunification Germany in peaceful way.

The remaining parties and organizations recognize the leading role of the working class party and, being independent, independent organizations, closely cooperate with it.

Were parties banned in the GDR?

No in GDR not a single party was banned. On the contrary, the SPD, whose activities were authorized in 1945 in the then Soviet zone of occupation, decided to merge with the KPD after a democratic vote of its members. The KPD also made a similar decision to unite with the SPD. Thus, the working class learned from the past the lesson that the threat of fascism and militarism can be eliminated and a new socialist system can be created only if the workers act in unity.

Since the unification congress held in April 1946, GDR there is a Socialist Unity Party Germany as a united party of the working class. IN Berlin The full unification of the KPD and SPD was prevented by the right-wing leadership of the SPD, which acted at the behest of the imperialist occupying powers against the will of the SPD members. - The overwhelming majority of SPD members spoke in favor of cooperation or unification of the two working class parties. Therefore, the SED and SPD exist in both parts of the divided capital and have in all areas of the Greater Berlin their boards *.

Of course, the creation of militaristic and fascist organizations opposing the peaceful coexistence of peoples, in GDR forbidden.

What should be understood by the policy of the Democratic Bloc?

The policy of the Democratic Bloc means the joint solution of common problems with the participation of all peace-loving and democratic forces GDR. It is an expression of the cooperation of all segments of the population under the leadership of the working class in the construction of socialism in GDR, in solving the national problems of the German people.

The Democratic Bloc was created on July 14, 1945 by the decision of the parties that existed in the then Soviet zone of occupation: the KPD, SPD, CDU and LDPG. Subsequently founded parties and the most important political organizations joined the bloc, so that now it includes: Socialist United Nation Germany(SED), Christian Democratic Union Germany(CDSG), Liberal Democratic Party Germany(LDPD), Peasant Democratic Party Germany(CMR), National Democratic Party Germany(NDPG), the Association of Free German Trade Unions (FGTU), the Union of Free German Youth (FGY) and the Democratic Women's Union Germany(JSG).

The unification was dictated by the desire to overcome

Let go of the fragmentation of democratic forces, which had such fatal consequences for Germany in 1933. On the other hand, it was necessary to solve the difficult problems of the post-war period. Over the past period of time, this union of parties and organizations has so far justified itself that it now belongs to the most important political institutions. GDR and has an ever-increasing influence in all areas of the life of the state.

The bloc meets before making all the most important decisions of the government or the People's Chamber on issues of internal and foreign policy and discusses their future policies. Decision making is based on the principle of unanimity. This means that the discussion of all issues continues until agreement is reached on the fundamental provisions. This ensures the participation of all politically active forces in joint creative activities. The pinnacle of the Democratic Bloc's activity was the creation of the State Council German Democratic Republic in September 1960.

What is the National Front democratic Germany?

National Democratic Front Germany is a broad movement, not associated with any one party, covering the entire Germany. It unites in its ranks citizens of Eastern and Western Germany, representatives of all segments of the population, regardless of their worldview, members of a wide variety of parties and organizations whose goal is the reunification Germany on a peaceful, democratic basis. Since such goals contradict the intentions of the ruling circles of the Federal Republic of Germany, the federal government and the governments of the Western states Germany this movement was banned. Supporters of the National Front were and are being persecuted by the judicial authorities of the western zone.

The National Front has existed since January 1950: it arose - with a simultaneous expansion of tasks - on the basis of the then people's committees of the struggle for unity Germany and a fair peace treaty. The governing bodies of the National Front are

The National Council, re-elected in 1958 by the Third Congress of the National Front, and the Presidium of the National Council. The laureate again became the Chairman of the Presidium national award professor dr. Erich Correns.

The National Front is not an organization, but a movement of patriotic forces; it does not keep records of members and does not accept membership fees. Its activities are financed by donations from the public. In the territory GDR There are 15 district, 219 district and about 17 thousand local, city, district, block and village committees of the National Front, in which citizens of all segments of the population are represented. In the election committees of the National Front in GDR Currently, about 300 thousand people work.

In Western Germany The activities of the National Front, despite the illegal ban, extend to a wide variety of segments of the population. This is evidenced, in particular, by the participation in meetings of the National Council of such prominent political figures of Western Germany, as Münstersknilprofessor Dr. Hagemann ( former member CDU), members of the Landtags from SDG1G Scheperkötter (North Rhine-Westphalia) and Berg (Hamburg).

What are the goals of the National Front?

The National Front stands for the conclusion of a peace treaty with the two German states, the peaceful reunification of our fatherland and for the democratic development of the whole Germany. The appeal of the National Front in connection with the elections to the People's Chamber and district assemblies of deputies held on November 16, 1958 (the appeal was adopted by the Third Congress of the National Front in September 1958) said:

"National Front for Democratic Germany calls on you, citizens German Democratic Republic, to the struggle for national revival Germany as a peace-loving, democratic state."

Thus, the National Front introduces the population of both parts Germany with the problems of disarmament, peace treaty and reunification. He supports the actions of the West German population against remilitarization, fascisation and atomic weapons.

IN GDR The National Front supports the construction of socialism, because it sees the goal of its activities as ensuring that the working people live in conditions of peace and prosperity. In order for the construction of socialism to develop even more successfully, the National Front calls for voluntary assistance in this matter. Thus, the ruins of neighborhoods destroyed by air raids during the Second World War have been cleared, green spaces are being planted, sports grounds are being built, outdoor swimming pools, children's playgrounds, etc.

In 1960, the National Front carried out work worth more than 447 million marks. If the total cost of the work performed is divided by the entire working population (from the age of 15, including pensioners), then for each person there will be 32.64 marks. This is the voluntary contribution of the population to the construction of capital construction projects. If we take into account all the voluntary assistance provided to agriculture and industry, it turns out that 157 million hours were worked voluntarily.

Of particular importance is the fact that the National Front is playing important role in holding elections to the People's Chamber and local people's representatives. Together with a bloc of democratic parties and organizations, it nominates candidates for deputies, holds meetings at which candidates for deputies meet with voters, and deputies and administrative staff report. He organizes discussion evenings at which the population expresses their opinions and makes proposals on planned events of the People's Chamber and the government. Thus, in 1956, during the discussion of the draft law on further democratization (Law on local authorities state power dated January 18, 1957) more than 4.5 million citizens took part GDR, who made 10 thousand proposals to improve the work of government bodies. These figures were significantly exceeded during the discussion of the draft new labor code, held at the end of 1960 - beginning of 1961, mainly through trade unions.

How carried out the right of the population to participate in government state and the economy?

Population GDR enjoys not only broad rights to participate in the management of all areas of public life, but also the right to active participation in the management of the state and the economy. IN GDR The slogan is being put into practice: “Plan, work, manage together with everyone else.” Citizens can exert a decisive influence on the development of all social life through parties, trade unions and other organizations in which they belong, as well as through the National Front for Democratic Germany. There, at meetings and discussions, for example, important government bills are discussed. In particular, the draft law on the socialist development of school affairs and the draft Labor Code were subject to such discussion. This means that citizens can express their opinions and make proposals to change the projects under discussion, thereby influencing the final wording of laws.

The most important form of participation in government is popular representation. The People's Chamber has 466 deputies. Local people's representative offices employ 270 thousand citizens who are deputies or deputy deputies. Consequently, every fiftieth citizen who enjoys the right to vote takes a direct part in governing the state. As representatives of the entire population, deputies bring up their wishes and wishes for discussion proposals of voters.Each voter can turn to his deputy and, with his help, influence state and administrative bodies.

Workers and employees of national enterprises take an active part in the management of production. An important form of their participation in enterprise management is constant production meetings as elected bodies of the factory trade union organization. They are actively involved in the development production plans and monitoring their implementation, express critical comments regarding the organization of production and present proposals aimed at achieving the highest production indicators. This real participation workers in the management of enterprises could have developed due to the fact that, under conditions of national ownership, there is no antagonism between the interests of the enterprise administration and the interests of workers and employees.

Can citizens of the GDR express their opinions openly and freely?

The right to freely express their opinions is guaranteed to all citizens in accordance with Article 9 of the Constitution GDR. This article categorically prohibits prosecution of citizens for exercising such a right. IN GDR Therefore, it is unthinkable that a citizen who criticizes, for example, the work of his boss or minister, reveals certain shortcomings in the work of an institution or management, etc., would lose his place or even be arrested. Moreover, openly expressing an opinion about existing shortcomings is not only the right, but also the duty of citizens. For only in this way can we reveal shortcomings and quickly eliminate difficulties, and thereby speed up socialist construction. In this case, it does not matter what the citizen is guided by when expressing and defending his opinion - Christian responsibility, liberal views or Marxist worldview. All citizens have the opportunity to assemble for this purpose.

There is only one limitation: the opinions expressed and meetings held must serve the cause of peace and democracy. Incitement against a democratic state and its institutions, incitement to murder of political figures and other persons, manifestation of religious, racial and national hatred are prohibited by Article 6 of the Constitution.

The population is protected from militaristic and military propaganda by the Peace Protection Law. It is impossible for revanchists, militarists and SS men to gather and demand the establishment of a “new order” in Europe, as is the case in Germany. Such persons in GDR would be immediately arrested and punished by law.

CHAMBER OF THE PEOPLE

Does the House of the People have all the rights of a sovereign organ of popular representation?

The highest state body of the Republic is the People's Chamber. Its deputies are elected by citizens through universal, equal and direct elections by secret ballot.

Of all government bodies, the People's Chamber has the most broad and comprehensive rights. No other body has the right to give instructions to this highest body of popular representation or interfere with its activities. Moreover, for all other government bodies, the decisions of the People's Chamber are binding. All other bodies are subject to control by the People's Chamber.

IN GDR There is no so-called separation of powers, which places the judicial or administrative bodies outside the control of the parliament elected by the population. No court has the right to review the laws of the People's Chamber, as is the case with the laws of the Bundestag in Western Europe. Germany. The House of the People is sovereign.

The competence of the People's Chamber includes a wide variety of tasks. Thus, the People's Chamber has the right to: establish the principles of government policy; approve the composition of the government, control its activities and, if necessary, deny it powers;

supervise local people's representatives and direct their activities; legislate;

make decisions on the state budget, national economic plan, loans and state credit of the Republic, ratify international treaties;

elect members of the State Council and, if necessary, recall them;

elect members of the Supreme Court and the Prosecutor General and, if necessary, recall them.

Thus, this parliament chosen by the people has the most extensive rights ever

in history Germany was vested in Parliament. The People's Chamber represents a unified state power.

How does the People's Chamber work?

The People's Chamber makes all important decisions at its plenary sessions. To prepare these decisions and to better organize its work, the People's Chamber forms commissions. These commissions, however, do not have the right to act independently, replacing the plenum of the People's Chamber. Their decisions need to be approved plenary session People's Chamber.

Legislative activity is consistent with democratic character GDR. Bills can be introduced by the government or deputies of the People's Chamber. As a rule, two readings are held, between which the bill is discussed in the relevant sectoral commissions of the People's Chamber. Often, before its adoption by the People's Chamber, a bill is discussed at thousands of public meetings, as was the case in the spring of 1961 when discussing the draft Labor Code. At the same time, all proposals for the bill made by citizens are carefully considered and, of course, if they are useful, taken into account.

This allows us to understand why the broad legislative activity of the House of the People expresses the interests of the population and is an example for a future peaceful, democratic, united state. Germany. Thus, in particular, laws were adopted that, reflecting changing economic and political conditions, expand the democratic rights of citizens. These include, first of all, Labor Code guaranteeing the right to work, the right to creative participation workers in the management of production and providing for the constant improvement of the material and cultural living conditions of workers and employees. Back on January 19, 1957, the People's Chamber adopted the Law on the Reduction of Working Time, which introduced a 45-hour workday throughout industry. work week no salary reduction. Others important decisions The People's Chamber are: the Law on the Rights of Youth, the Law on the Protection of Mother and Child and on Women's Rights, which guarantees full equality of women in all areas of public life, and, last but not least, the Law on the Protection of Peace.

From international treaties ratified in last years The People's Chamber should primarily be called the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance of May 14, 1955, on the basis of which all socialist countries guarantee security GDR against aggression. A number of agreements on the provision of legal assistance, as well as consular conventions, have been concluded with various countries. IN Lately Numerous trade and shipping agreements have been concluded, in particular with the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Czechoslovak Republic Socialist Republic, the People's Republic of China, as well as an agreement on cooperation in the field social security from the USSR.

At any period of its existence, the People's Chamber was aware of its national responsibility. Time and again she addressed the West German Bundestag with proposals aimed at eliminating the split Germany. On July 6, 1961, the People's Chamber discussed the peace plan of the German people, aimed at a peaceful solution to the German and West Berlin issue through the conclusion of a peace treaty. After its adoption by the People's Chamber, it became the basis of national policy GDR. However, all these efforts undertaken in the interests of reunification Germany, did not meet with support from Bonn.

Does the People's Chamber exist?

division into government and opposition parties?

All five parties existing in GDR, and influential in politically mass organizations are represented in government GDR and are therefore government parties. This provision is legally enshrined in the Constitution, which establishes that all political associations represented in the People's Chamber by at least 10 percent of deputies must share the responsibility of the government. Therefore, the central place in the activities of the government is occupied by a serious business conversation between all responsible factions. Joint discussion, which does not exclude criticism and the struggle of opinions when opposing points of view are brought together, forms the basis of their work. This method is in the best interests of the business and, therefore, the population. Therefore, in the People's Chamber, as in the parliaments of imperialist states, there are no ostentatious political battles designed to fool the ordinary voter.

It goes without saying that the VL parties are united by a common political goal. For GDR such a common goal was formulated in the decisions of the bloc of democratic parties and mass organizations (see pp. 17 et seq.), in which, after 1945, all anti-fascist, democratic parties and organizations united. In subsequent years, such cooperation, serving the benefit of the population GDR, justified itself the best way. It is based on: peace policy, rapid economic growth, constant improvement financial situation and, last but not least, numerous proposals aimed at peaceful reunification Germany. Establishment of socialist social order guaranteeing people prosperity, peace and faith in the future - this is the common goal of all parties GDR.

Only imperialist and militaristic forces could act as opposition to this progressive policy, which meets the interests of the people, but with them in GDR it's over. Their ideas of preparation for war, criminal incitement, etc., are devoid of nutritious soil in GDR.

How are elections held in the GDR?

Deputies of the People's Chamber and local people's representatives are elected, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, through general, equal and direct elections by secret ballot for a period of 4 years. All citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote. Every citizen who has reached the age of 21 has the right to be elected.

It is important to emphasize that the nomination of candidates for deputies already takes place with the decisive participation of voters. At first, democratic parties and mass organizations united on the basis of a jointly developed program in the National Democratic Front Germany, identify candidates for deputies from all parties and mass organizations. Candidates are required to personally meet with their voters and tell them about their past activities and their future work as deputies. At the same time, voters have the right to ask questions to parliamentary candidates and reject those candidates whom they do not trust.

Such nomination and verification of candidates for deputies by voters is a fundamentally new phenomenon in the development of German electoral law. Voters, therefore, no longer cast their votes for candidates proposed to them, who in most cases are unknown persons, but decide for themselves who will remain on the lists of parliamentary candidates. This method ensures that deputies in GDR are true representatives of the people.

The elections themselves are held on democratic principles. Each voter votes secretly. However, such a casting of votes on election day has a completely different meaning than, for example, in bourgeois-capitalist countries. It represents the completion of a long democratic election process, with the approval by the voter of a list of parliamentary candidates whom he had previously vetted and approved.

The next elections to the People's Chamber took place on November 16, 1958. The election results showed that citizens GDR the overwhelming majority accepted the programmatic demands of the National Front as their own. 98.89 percent of the total number of voters participated in the elections. Of these, for candidates for parliament from the National Democratic Front Germany 98.87 percent cast their votes.

To whom are deputies responsible?

Since the deputies GDR are elected by the people, they are obliged to carry out the will of their voters and are directly responsible only to them. It follows that they must maintain constant and close communication with their constituents in order to know their opinions, explain to them the policies and laws of the state and involve them in active participation in solving public problems.

Deputies are obliged to regularly receive voters, listen to them, and quickly and conscientiously consider their orders and advice. They must also report periodically to the citizens of their constituency on all their activities. When reporting, they must, in particular, report on the implementation of the orders of voters and on the fate of the proposals and complaints of the population. Therefore, in GDR It is unacceptable for deputies to make empty promises before their election that they will not fulfill later. Voters can constantly monitor their MPs. Having discovered that the representative they have elected does not justify the trust placed in him or does not fulfill his deputy duties, they can demand his recall at a meeting of voters.

Who is included in the People's Chamber?

The People's Chamber consists of 466 deputies. 400 deputies are elected in constituencies GDR. Capital GDR, Berlin, sends 66 deputies to the People's Chamber.

At its first meeting, the People's Chamber elects a presidium, which, headed by its chairman, presides over the meetings of the People's Chamber.

Chairman of the People's Chamber - Dr. Johannes Dickman (LDPG). His first deputy is Hermann Matern (SED). The Presidium of the People's Chamber includes, furthermore, as deputy chairmen of the People's Chamber: August Bach (CDSG), Friedrich Ebert (SED), Ernst Golldenbaum (CDM), Greta Gro-Kummerlöw (OSNP), Heinrich Homann (NDPD), Wilhelmina Schirmer-Pröscher (JSG).

Members of the People's Chamber are not professional parliamentarians. They all work in one position or another. To exercise their rights and duties as elected representatives of the people, deputies have the necessary time, which is provided to them by the relevant enterprises and institutions.

The composition of the People's Chamber according to the affiliation of deputies to parties or mass organizations, according to their social origin, age groups The floor looks like this (as of January 1959):

Faction affiliation

52 German Kulturbund

Social background

53 29 29 18 12

SED LDPG CDSG NPD CMR

Workers 286 Peasants 36 Employees 57 Representatives of the intelligentsia 41

Craftsmen

Priests

Entrepreneurs

42 2 2

Up to 25 years old From 26 to 30 years old From 31 to 40 years old

Age groups

22 From 41 to 50 years 27 From 51 to 60 years 117 Over 60 years

There are 95 women among the deputies of the People's Chamber, that is, almost a quarter of the total number of elected people. The number of young deputies representing youth interests is also higher than in any capitalist country.

The composition of the People's Chamber indicates that in the German Democratic Republic state power - in contrast to the Western Germany- is in the hands of the working class, acting in alliance with the peasantry and other sections of the working people.

STATE COUNCIL AND GOVERNMENT

Why was the State Council created in the GDR?

The establishment of the State Council is a completely new phenomenon for Germany. As the first president of the German workers' and peasants' state until

Until his death, there was the respected Wilhelm Pieck, who headed the state of workers and peasants - the German Democratic Republic.

Since the entry into force of the constitution in 1949, the territory GDR fundamental changes have occurred. During this time, the republic turned into a socialist state. The principles of governing a socialist state are different from those of bourgeois states. One of these principles reads: >to build socialism together and govern the state together. In other words, representatives of various parties and mass organizations - workers, employees, peasants, intellectuals and artisans, Christians, liberals and socialists - cooperate in a spirit of unanimity at all levels of government. With the election of the State Council, this principle also extended to the highest body of state power. Members of all parties and mass organizations, representatives of all segments of the population work in it with a full consciousness of responsibility.

The creation of the State Council was also dictated by another consideration - the need to introduce the principle of collective leadership. Everywhere in government bodies and institutions, leadership should be carried out by boards, taking into account the responsibility of each individual. The collective knowledge and experience of several individuals allows the best decision to be made, taking into account all the circumstances of the case. A group of people knows and sees more than one person. The principle of collegiality has been applied in all areas of public life for a number of years. That is why the People's Chamber, at its meeting on September 12, 1960, decided to abolish the post of president of the republic and create a State Council.

Are the powers of the State Council only of a representative nature?

The principle of collective leadership of the state was consistent with the provision to the State Council GDR broader powers than the usual functions of representation vested in the president.

Article 106 of the Constitution, as laid down in the Law establishing the Council of State of September 12, 1960,

sets:

“The State Council of the Republic calls elections to the People's Chamber and convenes its first meeting after the elections;

may conduct a national poll; ratifies and denounces international treaties German Democratic Republic;

appoints and recalls authorized representatives German Democratic Republic in foreign countries;

accepts credentials and letters of recall from diplomatic representatives of foreign states accredited to him;

provides a generally binding interpretation of laws; issues decisions that have the force of law; makes fundamental decisions on issues of defense and security of the country;

approves the fundamental orders of the National Defense Council German Democratic Republic;

appoints members of the National Defense Council German Democratic Republic;

sets military ranks, diplomatic ranks and special ranks;

awards orders and other high awards and honorary titles; exercises the right of pardon." State Council GDR has the right to make important political decisions, for which he, however, is obliged at any time to report to the People's Chamber as the highest body of popular representation.

Who is on the State Council?

The State Council consists of 24 people. It consists of a chairman, six deputies, 16 members and a secretary.

Chairman - Walter Ulbricht, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party Germany. Deputy Chairmen:

Otto Grotewohl, Chairman of the Council of Ministers German Democratic Republic, member of the Politburo of the SED Central Committee;

Dr. Johannes Diekmann, Chairman of the People's Chamber, Deputy Chairman of the LDPD;

Gerald Gotting, Member of the People's Chamber, general secretary HDSG;

Heinrich Homan, Deputy Chairman of the People's Chamber, Deputy Chairman of the NPD;

Manfred Gerlach, Member of the People's Chamber, Secretary General of the LDPD;

Hans Ritz, member of the People's Chamber, head of the main department of the CMR board.

Among the members of the State Council are the famous worker Louise Ermisch, a leading peasant woman, member of the Agricultural Industrial Complex Irmgard Neumann and the famous scientist - professor Dr. Erich Corrence. So the State Council GDR represents the cohesion and growing moral and political unity of our population. Members of the State Council are elected for a term of 4 years. The Chairman, his deputies, members and the Secretary of the State Council may be recalled by the People's Chamber to which they are accountable. And this provision, enshrined in law, is another evidence that the highest body of people's representation is the main body of state power, vested with extensive powers.

Is the government elected by parliament?

Yes. According to the Constitution, the largest faction in the House of the People nominates a candidate for the post of chairman of the Council of Ministers, which then forms the government. The People's Chamber approves the composition of the government. Members of the government take an oath to the Chairman of the Council of State that they will act in accordance with the Constitution. The government must enjoy the trust of the People's Chamber, to which it is accountable. In accordance with democratic principles, the People's Chamber can refuse confidence in a minister or several members of the government - and not just the chancellor, as in Germany - and force them to resign.

In order to ensure the participation of all democratic forces of various political trends in the management of state affairs, all factions of the House of the People, numbering at least 40 members, must, according to the Constitution GDR, are represented in the government in proportion to their number by ministers or secretaries of state.

Who is in the government?

The government includes: the chairman of the Council of Ministers, his deputies, the chairman of the State Planning Commission, the chairman of the National Economy Council, ministers, the state secretary for higher and special education, the state secretary for scientific research and technicians and chairman of the Central Commission of State Control.

In accordance with the nature of the State, the Government consists of representatives of the workers. All parties are represented in it GDR. Most government members come from working class backgrounds. Other layers exercising power in alliance with the working class are also represented in the government. Government composition GDR reflects the entire set of parties and organizations represented in the National Democratic Front Germany.

The government includes figures such as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Otto Grotewohl. A printer by profession, he long years participated in the labor movement, was a member of the Reichstag from the Social Democratic Party. After 1933, while underground, he fought against fascism, and after 1945, as chairman of the Central Board of the Social Democratic Party, he actively advocated the unification of the two parties of the working class.

Paul Scholz, Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, was a former agricultural worker. He was arrested for his underground anti-fascist activities. After 1945, he worked as deputy editor-in-chief of the newspaper Der Freie Bauer. In 1948 he participated in the creation of the Peasant Democratic Party Germany.

Here current composition Council of Ministers GDR:

Chairman of the Council of Ministers Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers for Coordination and Control Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of Health Deputy Chairman of the Council

Ministers Deputy Chairman of the Council

Ministers Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers and Minister of Foreign Affairs Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers for coordination of fundamental issues of the national economy Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers for trade, supply and Agriculture Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers for Culture and Education Chairman of the State Planning Commission and Minister Chairman of the People's Council

Economy and Minister Minister of the Interior Minister of Finance Minister of National Defense

Minister of Foreign and Internal Affairs

Mansk Trade Minister of Trade and Supply Minister of Agriculture and Forestry

Economy and Procurement Minister of Transport Minister of Post and Communications Minister of Construction

Otto Grotewohl

Willy Stoff

^.Max Zefrin Dr. Max Zurbir Paul Scholz

Dr. Lothar Boltz Bruno Leuschner

Dr. Greta Witkowski

Alexander Abush

Karl Mevis

Alfred Neumann Karl Marohn Willy Rumpf Army General Heinz Hoffmann

Julius Balkow Kurt-Heinz Merkel

Hans Reichelt Erwin Kramer Friedrich Burmeister Ernst Scholz

Minister of Culture

Minister of Public Education

Minister of Justice Minister of State Security

Stats -Secretary for Higher and Special Education Affairs State Secretary for Scientific Research and Technology (Secretary of the Research Council) Chairman of the Central Commission for State Control

Hans Bentzius Prof. Dr Alfred Lemnitz

Dr. Hilda Benyamipe

Erich Mielke Dr. Wilhelm Girnus

prof. Dr. Hans Fruauf

Hans Jendrecki

How are the tasks of the governments of the two German states different?

Tasks of the Council of Ministers (i.e. government) GDR more extensive and versatile compared to the tasks of the Bonn government. He is the highest level of government GDR. He is charged with the responsibility of conducting government affairs. The Council of Ministers, on the basis of and in execution of laws and decisions of the People's Chamber and decisions of the State Council, manages the work of socialist construction in the political sphere; economic and cultural areas. It directs, checks and improves the activities of government bodies, ensuring a harmonious combination of central planning and management with the broadest participation of workers in the management of the state and the economy. The Council of Ministers represents the Republic in the field of diplomatic relations with foreign states. It ensures the maintenance of peace and order within the country and the protection of the socialist achievements of the working people from attacks by internal and external enemies. For this purpose, it has at its disposal the People's Police, the State Security Organs and the National People's Army.

In accordance with the peace policy pursued GDR, the Council of Ministers is primarily entrusted with the task of ensuring the peace and future of the nation. Therefore, he has already repeatedly addressed the West German government with numerous proposals regarding negotiations on issues of disarmament, reunification Germany and the conclusion of a peace treaty. Bonn rejected all these proposals.

Of particular importance are the tasks of the Council of Ministers in the economic, cultural and social fields, which are fundamentally different from the functions of previous governments in Germany and the Bonn* government. The socialist state carries out planning and management of the entire national economy and development in the cultural and social fields. It became for the government GDR possible because the main means of production are in the hands of the people.

Based on the national economic plan adopted by the People's Chamber, the Council of Ministers outlines specific measures for the development of the economy, culture and social security and determines the general line in raising the living standards of the population. For this purpose, it has at its disposal the State Planning Commission, the National Economic Council, ministries and other economic, cultural and social institutions.

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According to the Constitution, the Council of Ministers has the right to submit bills to the People's Chamber. In addition, the Council of Ministers itself can issue resolutions that do not go beyond the laws and decisions of the People's Chamber.

New provisions on the tasks and operating procedures of local people's representative bodies and their bodies, developed as a result of a comprehensive exchange of experience with all segments of the population and government bodies and adopted on June 28, 1961, consolidate best methods government controlled. The activities of all local bodies are now developing on their basis.

Originated in post-war period on German soil, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic for forty years seemed to personify two socio-economic and political systems, two ways of life - capitalist (Germany) and socialist (GDR). Each of them “worked” in its own way for the authority of the corresponding system.

However, this economic competition ultimately did not favor the socialist model. Thus, at the end of the 1980s, labor productivity in the GDR was much lower than in West Germany and a significant part of the enterprises in the country were unprofitable, but it must be taken into account that this was based not only on institutional reasons, but also on political pressure from the West.

The starting conditions after the war were similar; the political split in Germany led to the economic disintegration of the countries, to the split of the single economy. But the main disproportions arose between the relatively developed manufacturing industry on the territory of the GDR and the extremely insufficient coal, metallurgical raw materials and energy base that remained in the West. The war caused more damage to the eastern part of Germany, where the main fighting. Here, 45% of industrial assets were destroyed, including 30% of energy facilities, transport was completely disorganized, industrial development was not ensured by coal, oil, iron ore, and non-ferrous metals. There was no basis for the heavy industry that had historically developed in West Germany.

Considering practically complete absence external currency loans (the USSR provided them, but not in such volumes as the United States under the “Marshall Plan” for Germany), the burden of reparations (the FRG paid to a lesser extent) and the costs of maintaining Soviet troops (they were limited to 5% of the annual budget of the GDR only after 1953), the economic achievements of the GDR in the 50s can be called phenomenal. If the Federal Republic of Germany (and its growth rates were many times higher than those of Great Britain and France) increased from 1950 to 1958. industrial output by 210%, then the GDR by 241%. Average annual growth industrial production in the GDR in 1950-58. was 10%, and in Germany – 8.5%. In 1957, the GDR overtook the FRG in terms of industrial growth compared to 1936. If we take this year’s level as 100%, then in 1957 the industrial potential of the GDR increased by 2.4 times, and the FRG by 2.26 times. Moreover, the starting positions of both countries in 1950 were approximately the same: the GDR - 110.6% of the 1936 level, the Federal Republic of Germany - 110.9%. However, these impressive figures masked serious structural problems in the GDR economy.

While developing heavy industry and at the same time managing to avoid inflation and budget deficits, the GDR government had to seriously limit the growth of goods production consumer consumption. The unrest of the population in June 1953 was largely explained not only by an increase in the already high production standards, but also by interruptions in the supply of certain products, as well as high prices in state trade for meat, butter, fabrics, clothing, leather shoes and dishes. As a result, the GDR government carried out a massive redistribution of investment from heavy industry in favor of industries that directly met the needs of the population. However, the new direction of the state's investment policy made it impossible to radically re-equip the fixed assets of the fairly outdated industry of East Germany. Most of its enterprises remained at the technological level of 1939, while in Germany the renewal of equipment in industry (which was much less affected by the war than the industry of the GDR) occurred twice after 1945.

And if the initial redistribution of funds in favor of light and Food Industry was justified, then in the specific conditions of the industrialized GDR it took too long. The country still objectively could not feed and clothe itself using internal resources. Consequently, it was necessary to increase exports, and the main export goods of East Germany have always been industrial equipment and chemical products. But since sufficient funds were not allocated to these industries, their products became obsolete and became less and less competitive in the West every day. Accordingly, foreign exchange earnings were reduced, which could be used to purchase food and high-quality consumer goods, many of which (for example, coffee and chocolate, traditional for consumption in Germany) could not be supplied from the countries of the socialist camp. It turned out that by the mid-50s the West Germans were already getting a taste for the so-called. southern fruits (i.e. bananas, pineapples, etc.), while for the inhabitants of the GDR there was still not enough good coffee. Moreover, it is very interesting that these problems were well understood in the USSR, although to many it seemed unimportant. But if Soviet workers and peasants in the 1950s were unpretentious in their choice of consumer goods, and the lack of some things was not perceived by them as deprivation and hardship, then the Germans traditionally had more high culture consumption. The lack of coffee was very sensitive for them. In addition, the GDR had the example of the Federal Republic of Germany before it, and the survival of the German workers' and peasants' state really depended on whether it could provide its citizens with a standard of living at least comparable to the Federal Republic of Germany. From year to year, the GDR was forced to import (mainly from the USSR) a significant part of the food consumed in the country. 25% of grain, 11% of meat, 7% of butter and 8% of eggs were purchased abroad.

It is clear that in the GDR they formed the same economic structure as it was in the USSR, which entailed processes of nationalization and stateization. In 1952, production cooperatives began to be created in villages, using both economic and administrative pressure. The peak of forced collectivization in the GDR occurred in 1960. During this year, the same amount of agricultural land was collectivized as in all of the previous eight years. By the end of 1960, more than 80% of agricultural land in the GDR had been nationalized. The policy was structured similarly in the industrial sector, and if in the early 1960s the socialist industrial sector produced 85% of the total social product, then by the beginning of the 70s the share of people's (state) enterprises in industrial production was already 94.9%.

In Germany, by the mid-1950s, after a slight slowdown in economic growth, a new boom began, caused by an influx of capital, a significant renewal of technical production, and government measures to revive heavy industry. In 1953-56, the annual increase in industrial output was 10-15%. In terms of industrial production, Germany ranked third in the world after the USA and Great Britain, and in some types of production it surpassed Great Britain. At the same time, the basis of the rapidly growing economy was small and medium business: in 1953, enterprises with fewer than 500 employees provided more than half of all jobs in the economy, and unemployment had a steady downward trend (from 10.3% in 1950 to 1.2% in 1960).

By the beginning of the 1960s. In terms of industrial production and export volumes, Germany was second only to the United States. It accounted for more than 60.5% of coal production, about half of steel production, about 40% of exports and 35% of UES imports (“ Common Market"). Agriculture also developed successfully. For example, in 1934–1938, the average annual wheat yield in the country was 22.3 centners per hectare, and in 1967 and 1968 - 41.2 and 42.3 centners per hectare, respectively. The agrarian reform, which handed over the bulk of land to small and medium-sized owners, deserves special mention.

Among the factors that contributed to such successful development The economies of Germany should also be named as follows:

• the western part of Germany was historically formed as the industrial center of the country, where the most qualified labor force was concentrated;
• significant start-up assistance during the initial period of economic recovery under the Marshall Plan ($3.9 billion), especially supplies industrial equipment who contributed to the inclusion of Germany in the scientific and technological revolution;
• governmental support entrepreneurial activity, focus on creating medium-sized enterprises. Already in 1953, more than half of all employees worked in enterprises with up to 500 people;
• rooting in all sectors of the national economy the latest achievements NTR;
• minimum military expenditures: until 1955-1957. they were limited only to financing the occupation forces, which cost the country 2–2.5 times cheaper than maintaining its own army;
• multi-million influx of refugees from the Soviet occupation zone, which became an additional source work force. For the economy of the Federal Republic of Germany, refugees from the GDR gave a lot, so the cost of human capital transferred from the GDR in the FRG in the 50s amounted to 2.6 billion marks annually (savings on education and personnel training). In 1960, the share of refugees and migrants (not only from the GDR, but also from other countries of Eastern Europe) amounted to 30.7% of all employees of the Federal Republic of Germany;
• maintaining “class” peace in the country thanks to reasonable social policy states.

The fact that just 15 years after the Second World War, Germany came out on top in Europe in terms of economic development, having overtaken its winners in economic terms, speaks of the high efficiency of the reforms at the turn of the 1940s-1950s, which became a reliable launching pad for the development of the West German economy. The socio-economic model of the GDR had all the shortcomings characteristic of the command-administrative system of state socialism. Thus, the planned economy largely deprived the citizens of the GDR of personal initiative and independence, the middle layer of society was completely eliminated as the basis of economic development, entrepreneurship and labor activity were paralyzed. As a result, economic productivity was relatively low compared to Western countries. In 1979 it was 46% of the Western level and fell by 1989 to 30-40%.

Today, many Germans fundamentally do not want to divide the country into West and East and prefer to forget about the remnants of the past. However, even more than twenty years after unification, significant economic and institutional differences remain between the two parts of the country, not in favor of the eastern region of Germany.

IN Central Europe in the 1949-90s, on the territory of the modern lands of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia of the Federal Republic of Germany. The capital is Berlin (Eastern). Population: about 17 million people (1989).

The GDR arose on October 7, 1949 on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation of Germany as a temporary public education in response to the establishment in May 1949, on the basis of the American, British and French zones of occupation (see Trizonia), of a separate West German state - the Federal Republic of Germany (for more details, see the articles Germany, Berlin crises, German question 1945-90). Administratively, since 1949 it has been divided into 5 lands, and since 1952 - into 14 districts. East Berlin had the status of a separate administrative-territorial unit.

In the political system of the GDR, the leading role was played by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), formed in 1946 as a result of the merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the territory of the Soviet occupation zone. Traditional German parties also operated in the GDR: the Christian Democratic Union of Germany, the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany and the newly created National Democratic Party of Germany and the Democratic Peasant Party of Germany. All parties united into the Democratic Bloc and declared their commitment to the ideals of socialism. Parties and mass organizations (the Association of Free German Trade Unions, the Union of Free German Youth, etc.) were part of the National Front of the GDR.

The highest legislative body of the GDR was the People's Chamber (400 deputies, 1949-63, 1990; 500 deputies, 1964-89), elected through universal direct secret elections. The head of state in 1949-60 was the president (this position was held by the co-chairman of the SED V. Pieck). After the death of V. Pick, the post of president was abolished, the State Council elected by the People's Chamber and accountable to it, headed by the chairman, became the collective head of state (chairmen of the State Council: W. Ulbricht, 1960-73; W. Shtof, 1973-76; E. Honecker, 1976-89; E. Krenz, 1990). The highest executive body was the Council of Ministers, which was also elected by the People's Chamber and was accountable to it (Chairmen of the Council of Ministers: O. Grotewohl, 1949-64; V. Shtof, 1964-73, 1976-89; H. Zinderman, 1973-76; H. Modrov, 1989-90). The People's Chamber elected the chairman of the National Defense Council, the chairman and members of the Supreme Court and the prosecutor general of the GDR.

The normal functioning of the economy of East Germany, and then the GDR, which was heavily damaged by the war, was complicated from the very beginning by the payment of reparations in favor of the USSR and Poland. In violation of the decisions of the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference of 1945, the USA, Great Britain and France disrupted reparation supplies from their zones, as a result of which almost the entire burden of reparations fell on the GDR, which was initially inferior to the FRG economically. On 12/31/1953, the amount of reparations paid by the Federal Republic of Germany amounted to 2.1 billion German marks, while the reparation payments of the GDR for the same period amounted to 99.1 billion German marks. The share of dismantling industrial enterprises and deductions from the current production of the GDR reached critical levels in the early 1950s. The exorbitant burden of reparations, along with the mistakes of the leadership of the SED led by W. Ulbricht, who set a course for the “accelerated construction of socialism,” led to an overstrain of the republic’s economy and caused open discontent among the population, which manifested itself during the events of June 17, 1953. The unrest, which began as a strike by East Berlin construction workers against increasing production standards, covered most of the territory of the GDR and took on the character of anti-government protests. The support of the USSR allowed the GDR authorities to gain time, restructure their policies and then independently stabilize the situation in the republic in a short time. A “new course” was proclaimed, one of the goals of which was to improve the living conditions of the population (in 1954, the line of preferential development of heavy industry was, however, restored). To strengthen the GDR economy, the USSR and Poland refused to collect the remaining $2.54 billion in reparations from it.

While supporting the government of the GDR, the leadership of the USSR, however, pursued a policy of restoring a unified German state. At the Berlin meeting of the foreign ministers of the four powers in 1954, it again took the initiative to ensure the unity of Germany as a peace-loving, democratic state not participating in military alliances and blocs, and made a proposal to form a provisional all-German government on the basis of an agreement between the GDR and the FRG and entrust it with holding free elections. The all-German National Assembly, created as a result of the elections, was supposed to develop a constitution for a united Germany and form a government competent to conclude a peace treaty. However, the USSR's proposal did not receive support from the Western powers, who insisted on the membership of a united Germany in NATO.

The position of the governments of the USA, Great Britain and France on the German question and the subsequent entry of Germany into NATO in May 1955, which fundamentally changed the military-political situation in Central Europe, became the reason for the beginning of a revision by the leadership of the USSR of the line on the issue of German unification. The existence of the GDR and the Group of Soviet Forces stationed on its territory in Germany began to be given importance as a central element in the security system of the USSR in the European direction. The socialist social system began to be seen as an additional guarantee against the absorption of the GDR by the West German state and the development of allied relations with the USSR. In August 1954, the Soviet occupation authorities completed the process of transferring state sovereignty to the GDR, in September 1955 Soviet Union signed a fundamental agreement with the GDR on the basis of relations. In parallel, the GDR was comprehensively integrated into the economic and political structure Commonwealth of European Socialist States. In May 1955, the GDR became a member of the Warsaw Pact.

The situation around the GDR and the internal situation in the republic itself in the 2nd half of the 1950s continued to remain tense. In the West, circles became more active and were ready to use military force in relation to the GDR with a view to its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany. On international arena Since the autumn of 1955, the government of the Federal Republic of Germany has persistently pursued the policy of isolating the GDR and made a claim to the sole representation of the Germans (see the “Halstein Doctrine”). A particularly dangerous situation developed in Berlin. West Berlin, which was under the control of the occupation administrations of the USA, Great Britain and France and was not separated from the GDR by a state border, actually turned into a center of subversive activities against it, both economic and political. The economic losses of the GDR due to the open border with West Berlin in 1949-61 amounted to about 120 billion marks. During the same period, approximately 1.6 million people illegally left the GDR through West Berlin. These were mainly skilled workers, engineers, doctors, trained medical personnel, teachers, professors, etc., whose departure seriously complicated the functioning of the entire state mechanism of the GDR.

In an effort to strengthen the security of the GDR and defuse the situation in Central Europe, the USSR in November 1958 took the initiative to grant West Berlin the status of a demilitarized free city, that is, to turn it into an independent political unit with a controlled and guarded border. In January 1959, the Soviet Union presented a draft peace treaty with Germany, which could be signed by the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic or their confederation. However, the USSR's proposals again did not receive support from the USA, Great Britain and France. On 13.8.1961, on the recommendation of the Meeting of Secretaries of Communist and Workers' Parties of the Warsaw Pact countries (3-5.8.1961), the government of the GDR unilaterally introduced a state border regime in relation to West Berlin and began installing border barriers (see Berlin Wall).

The construction of the Berlin Wall forced the ruling circles of Germany to reconsider its course both in the German question and in relations with the socialist countries of Europe. After August 1961, the GDR gained the opportunity for relatively calm development and internal consolidation. The strengthening of the position of the GDR was facilitated by its Treaty of Friendship, Mutual Assistance and Cooperation with the USSR (12.6.1964), in which the inviolability of the borders of the GDR was declared one of the main factors of European security. By 1970, the economy of the GDR in its main indicators surpassed the level of industrial production in Germany in 1936, although its population was only 1/4 of the population of the former Reich. In 1968, a new Constitution was adopted, which defined the GDR as the “socialist state of the German nation” and secured the leading role of the SED in the state and society. In October 1974, a clarification was made to the text of the Constitution about the presence of a “socialist German nation” in the GDR.

The coming to power in Germany in 1969 of the government of W. Brandt, who took the path of normalizing relations with socialist countries (see “New Eastern Policy”), stimulated the warming of Soviet-West German relations. In May 1971, E. Honecker was elected to the post of 1st Secretary of the SED Central Committee, who spoke out for the normalization of relations between the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany and for carrying out economic and social reforms in order to strengthen socialism in the GDR.

From the beginning of the 1970s, the government of the GDR began to develop a dialogue with the leadership of the Federal Republic of Germany, which led to the signing in December 1972 of an agreement on the fundamentals of relations between the two states. Following this, the GDR was recognized by the Western powers, and in September 1973 it was admitted to the UN. The republic has achieved significant success in economic and social spheres. Among the CMEA member countries, its industry and agriculture have achieved the highest levels of productivity, as well as the highest degree of scientific and technological development in the non-military sector; The GDR had the highest level of per capita consumption among the socialist countries. In terms of industrial development in the 1970s, the GDR ranked 10th in the world. However, despite significant progress, by the end of the 1980s the GDR still seriously lagged behind the Federal Republic of Germany in terms of living standards, which negatively affected the mood of the population.

In the conditions of détente in the 1970-80s, the ruling circles of the Federal Republic of Germany pursued a policy of “change through rapprochement” towards the GDR, placing the main emphasis on expanding economic, cultural and “human contacts” with the GDR without recognizing it as a full-fledged state. When establishing diplomatic relations, the GDR and the FRG exchanged not embassies, as is customary in world practice, but permanent missions with diplomatic status. Citizens of the GDR, entering West German territory, could still, without any conditions, become citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, be called up to serve in the Bundeswehr, etc. For citizens of the GDR who visited the Federal Republic of Germany, the payment of “welcome money” remained, the amount of which by the end of the 1980s was 100 German marks for each family member, including infants. Active anti-socialist propaganda and criticism of the policies of the leadership of the GDR were carried out by radio and television of the Federal Republic of Germany, whose broadcasts were received almost throughout the entire territory of the GDR. The political circles of the Federal Republic of Germany supported any manifestations of opposition among the citizens of the GDR and encouraged their flight from the republic.

In conditions of acute ideological confrontation, at the center of which was the problem of quality of life and democratic freedoms, the leadership of the GDR tried to regulate “human contacts” between the two states by limiting the travel of GDR citizens to Germany, and exercised increased control over the mood of the population, persecuted opposition figures. All this only intensified the internal tension in the republic that had been growing since the early 1980s.

The majority of the population of the GDR greeted perestroika in the USSR with enthusiasm, in the hope that it would contribute to the expansion of democratic freedoms in the GDR and the lifting of restrictions on travel to Germany. However, the leadership of the republic had a negative attitude towards the processes unfolding in the Soviet Union, viewing them as dangerous for the cause of socialism, and refused to take the path of reform. By the autumn of 1989, the situation in the GDR had become critical. The population of the republic began to flee across the border with Austria opened by the Hungarian government and to the territory of the German embassies in Eastern European countries. Mass protest demonstrations took place in the cities of the GDR. Trying to stabilize the situation, the leadership of the SED on October 18, 1989 announced the release of E. Honecker from all positions he held. But E. Krenz, who replaced Honecker, could not save the situation.

On November 9, 1989, in conditions of administrative confusion, free movement was restored across the border of the GDR with the Federal Republic of Germany and the checkpoints of the Berlin Wall. A crisis political system developed into a crisis of the state. On December 1, 1989, the clause on the leading role of the SED was removed from the Constitution of the GDR. 12/7/1989 real power in the republic passed to what was created on the initiative of the Evangelical Church Round table, in which the old parties, mass organizations of the GDR and new informal political organizations were equally represented. In the parliamentary elections held on March 18, 1990, the SED, renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism, was defeated. Supporters of the GDR's entry into the Federal Republic of Germany received a qualified majority in the People's Chamber. By the decision of the new parliament, the State Council of the GDR was abolished, and its functions were transferred to the Presidium of the People's Chamber. The leader of the Christian Democrats of the GDR, L. de Maizières, was elected head of the coalition government. The new government of the GDR declared the laws that enshrined the socialist government structure The GDR entered into negotiations with the leadership of the Federal Republic of Germany on the terms of the unification of the two states and on May 18, 1990 signed a state agreement with them on a monetary, economic and social union. In parallel, negotiations were held between the governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic with the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France on problems related to the unification of Germany. The leadership of the USSR, led by M. S. Gorbachev, almost from the very beginning agreed with the liquidation of the GDR and the membership of a united Germany in NATO. On its own initiative, it raised the question of the withdrawal of the Soviet military contingent from the territory of the GDR (since mid-1989 it was called the Western Group of Forces) and pledged to carry out this withdrawal in a short time - within 4 years.

On July 1, 1990, the state treaty on the union of the GDR with the Federal Republic of Germany came into force. On the territory of the GDR, West German economic law began to operate, and the German stamp became a means of payment. On August 31, 1990, the governments of the two German states signed a unification agreement. On September 12, 1990 in Moscow, representatives of six states (Germany and the German Democratic Republic, as well as the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France) signed the “Treaty on the Final Settlement regarding Germany”, according to which the victorious powers in World War II declared the termination of "their rights and responsibilities in relation to Berlin and Germany as a whole" and granted the united Germany "full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs." On October 3, 1990, the agreement on the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany came into force, the West Berlin police took protection of the government offices of the GDR in East Berlin. The GDR as a state ceased to exist. There was no plebiscite on this issue in either the GDR or the Federal Republic of Germany.

Lit.: History of the German Democratic Republic. 1949-1979. M., 1979; Geschichte der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. V., 1984; Socialism of the national colors of the GDR. M., 1989; Bahrmann N., Links S. Chronik der Wende. V., 1994-1995. Bd 1-2; Lehmann N. G. Deutschland-Chronik 1945-1995. Bonn, 1996; Modrow N. Ich wollte ein neues Deutschland. V., 1998; Wolle S. Die heile Welt der Diktatur. Alltag und Herrschaft in der DDR 1971-1989. 2. Aufl. Bonn, 1999; Pavlov N.V. Germany on the way to the third millennium. M., 2001; Maksimychev I. F. “The people will not forgive us...”: Last months GDR. Diary of the Minister-Counselor of the USSR Embassy in Berlin. M., 2002; Kuzmin I. N. 41st year of the German Democratic Republic. M., 2004; Das letzte Jahr der DDR: zwischen Revolution und Selbstaufgabe. V., 2004.

Creation of the German Democratic Republic

On October 7, 1949, the German People's Council proclaimed the creation German Democratic Republic. Wilhelm Pieck became the first president of the GDR, and Otto Grotewohl became the head of the Provisional Government. Five months before the adoption of the constitution and the proclamation of the GDR, the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in West Germany. Since the official creation of the GDR occurred after the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, East German leaders had a reason to blame the West for the division of Germany.

Economic difficulties and worker discontent in the GDR

In 1952, the SED proclaimed that socialism would be built in the GDR. Following the Stalinist model, the leaders of the GDR imposed harsh economic system with central planning and government control. Heavy industry was given priority for development. Ignoring the dissatisfaction of citizens caused by the shortage of consumer goods, the authorities tried by all means to force workers to increase labor productivity.

After Stalin's death, the workers' situation did not improve, and they responded with an uprising on June 16-17, 1953. The action began as a strike by East Berlin construction workers. The unrest immediately spread to other industries in the capital, and then to the entire GDR. The strikers demanded not only an improvement in their economic situation, but also the holding of free elections. The authorities were in a state of panic. The paramilitary "People's Police" lost control of the situation, and the Soviet military administration brought in tanks.

After the events of June 1953, the government switched to a policy of carrots and sticks. More lenient economic policies (the New Deal) included lower production standards for workers and increased production of some consumer goods. At the same time, large-scale repressions were carried out against the instigators of unrest and disloyal functionaries of the SED. About 20 demonstrators were executed, many were thrown into prison, almost a third of party officials were either removed from their posts or transferred to other jobs with the official motivation “for losing contact with the people.” Nevertheless, the regime managed to overcome the crisis. Two years later, the USSR officially recognized the sovereignty of the GDR, and in 1956 East Germany formed its armed forces and became a full member of the Warsaw Pact.

Another shock for the countries of the Soviet bloc was the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), at which the Chairman of the Council of Ministers N.S. Khrushchev made an expose Stalin's repressions. The revelations of the leader of the USSR caused unrest in Poland and Hungary, but in the GDR the situation remained calm. The improvement in the economic situation caused by the new course, as well as the opportunity for dissatisfied citizens to “vote with their feet”, i.e. emigrate across the open border to Berlin, helped prevent a repeat of the events of 1953.

Some softening Soviet politics After the 20th Congress, the CPSU emboldened those members of the SED who did not agree with the position of Walter Ulbricht, a key political figure in the country, and other hardliners. The reformers, led by Wolfgang Harich, a university teacher. Humboldt in East Berlin, advocated democratic elections, workers' control in production and the "socialist unification" of Germany. Ulbricht managed to overcome this opposition of the “revisionist deviationists.” Harich was sent to prison, where he stayed from 1957 to 1964.

Berlin Wall

Showing support for the GDR, Khrushchev took a tough line against Berlin. He demanded that the Western powers effectively recognize the GDR, threatening to close access to West Berlin. (Until the 1970s, Western powers refused to recognize the GDR as independent state, insisting that Germany must be unified in accordance with the post-war agreements.) Once again, the scale of the ongoing exodus of the population from the GDR acquired frightening proportions for the government. In 1961, more than 207 thousand citizens left the GDR (in total, more than 3 million people moved to the West since 1945). In August 1961, the East German government blocked the flow of refugees by ordering the construction of a concrete wall and barbed wire fence between East and West Berlin. Within a few months, the border between the GDR and West Germany was equipped.

Stability and prosperity of the GDR

It should also be noted that East German historians, such as Horst Drexler and other researchers of German colonial policy 1880-1918, in whose works a reassessment of individual events of recent history were carried out German history. But the GDR was most successful in increasing its international prestige in the field of sports. A developed system of state sports clubs and training camps trained high-quality athletes who achieved amazing success in summer and winter sports. Olympic Games since 1972.

Changes in the leadership of the GDR

Ulbricht's successor as first secretary of the SED was Erich Honecker. A native of the Saarland, he joined the Communist Party at an early age and, after his release from prison at the end of World War II, became a professional SED functionary. For many years he headed the youth organization "Free German Youth". Honecker intended to strengthen what he called "real socialism." Under Honecker, the GDR began to play a prominent role in international politics, especially in relations with Third World countries. After the signing of the Basic Treaty with West Germany (1972), the GDR was recognized by the majority of countries in the world community and in 1973, like the FRG, became a member of the UN.

Collapse of the GDR

The coming to power in the USSR of M.S. Gorbachev and his policies of perestroika and glasnost undermined the basis of existence of the ruling SED regime. East German leaders recognized the potential danger early and abandoned perestroika in East Germany. But the SED could not hide information about changes in other countries of the Soviet bloc from the citizens of the GDR. West German television programs, which residents of the GDR watched much more often than East German television products, widely covered the progress of reforms in Eastern Europe.

The dissatisfaction of most East German citizens with their government reached a climax in 1989. While neighboring Eastern European states quickly liberalized their regimes, the SED cheered the brutal suppression of the June 1989 Chinese student demonstration in Tiananmen Square. But it was no longer possible to contain the tide of impending changes in the GDR. In August, Hungary opened its border with Austria, allowing thousands of East German holidaymakers to emigrate to the west.

At the end of 1989, popular discontent resulted in colossal protest demonstrations in the GDR itself. "Monday demonstrations" quickly became a tradition; hundreds of thousands of people took to the streets of major cities of the GDR (the most massive protests took place in Leipzig) demanding political liberalization. The GDR leadership was divided over how to deal with the dissatisfied, and it also became clear that it was now left to its own devices. At the beginning of October, M.S. arrived in East Germany to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the GDR. Gorbachev, who made it clear that the Soviet Union would no longer interfere in the affairs of the GDR to save the ruling regime.

Honecker, who had just recovered from major surgery, advocated the use of force against protesters. But the majority of the SED Politburo did not agree with his opinion, and in mid-October Honecker and his main allies were forced to resign. New general secretary The SED became Egon Krenz, like Honecker, former manager youth organization. The government was headed by Hans Modrow, secretary of the Dresden district committee of the SED, who was known as a supporter of economic and political reforms.

The new leadership tried to stabilize the situation by meeting some of the demonstrators' particularly widespread demands: the right to free exit from the country was granted (the Berlin Wall was opened on November 9, 1989) and free elections were proclaimed. These steps turned out to be insufficient, and Krenz, having served as head of the party for 46 days, resigned. At a hastily convened congress in January 1990, the SED was renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), and a truly democratic party charter was adopted. The chairman of the renewed party was Gregor Gysi, a lawyer by profession who defended several East German dissidents during the Honecker era.

In March 1990, citizens of the GDR participated in the first in 58 years free elections. Their results greatly disappointed those who had hoped for the preservation of a liberalized but still independent and socialist GDR. Although several newly emerged parties advocated a "third way" distinct from Soviet communism and West German capitalism, a bloc of parties allied with the West German Christian Democratic Union (CDU) won a landslide victory. This voting bloc demanded unification with West Germany.

Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German CDU, became the first (and last) freely elected prime minister of the GDR. The short period of his reign was marked by great changes. Under the leadership of de Maizières, the previous management apparatus was quickly dismantled. In August 1990, five states abolished in the GDR in 1952 were restored (Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia). On October 3, 1990, the GDR ceased to exist, uniting with the Federal Republic of Germany.