The culture of ancient Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation. Chapter XXXII
Culture Rus' during the period of fragmentation
For Russian spiritual culture of the mid-XII - XIII centuries. The emergence of “polycentrism” is characteristic - the emergence of distinctive cultural centers in different regions of Rus'.
Receives further development chronicle. If in the XI - early XII century. the centers of chronicle work were only Kyiv and Novgorod, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing was carried out in most centers of the formed feudal principalities: Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the “regional” nature of chronicling, chroniclers of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. did not isolate themselves in their narrow regional events, to one degree or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the chronicle texts that have reached us, the chronicle of the centers of Southern Rus' is most reflected by the Ipatiev Chronicle (late 13th century), the North-Eastern - by the Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (XIII century).
At the end of the 12th century. One of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merit was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. It is dedicated to the above-mentioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this hike that served as the occasion for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the prince's escape from captivity - were unique and produced strong impression on their contemporaries (in addition to the Lay, two lengthy chronicle stories are dedicated to them).
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the fall of 1188 (at the same time, perhaps its main text was written back in 1185, shortly after Igor’s escape from captivity, and in 1188 ... additions were made to it in connection with the return of his brother and son Igor from captivity). Its unknown author, the solution to whose name never ceases to amuse researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all existing versions do not stand up to serious criticism), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum of the ancient Russian nobility - boyars.
The main idea of the "Tale" is the need for unity of action of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely feuds and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of a unified state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his call is directed not to state unification, but to inner world, to agreement in actions.
Being a work about the events of its time, “The Lay” is at the same time a striking monument to historical thought. The “present” time is compared in it with past events, and national history(which was rare - usually historical examples in works ancient Russian literature drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of Rus''s current troubles: for this purpose, the author turns to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his appeal to history, the author of the Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.
In the second half of the 12th century. (the exact dating is a subject of dispute) in North-Eastern Rus' another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature appeared, “The Word of Daniel the Sharper.” It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, a native of the lower strata of the ruling class, who fell into disgrace, is trying to earn the prince’s favor again and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. The "Word" is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or in the first half of the 30s of the 13th century, a second edition of this work was created, called "The Prayer of Daniel the Prisoner." It was addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time to Prince Pereyaslavl Zalessky. The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative of a new category in the ranks of the ruling class. A characteristic feature of "Prayer" is a negative attitude towards the highest nobility - the boyars.
Another outstanding work of ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” - was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu’s hordes and his death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City of Yaroslav's brother - Yuri.
This work (which remained unfinished) contains a hymn glorifying the native land, which has no equal in medieval literature, a memory of its former power (under princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discussion about the “disease” - strife, undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” turns to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the reasons for its present-day troubles.
In the epic genre, mid-XII - early XIII centuries. - the time of the appearance of such epic stories as “Saur Levanidovich”, “Sukhman”, Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).
Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temples, but stone princely palaces also appear) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. there is a combination of local traditions, forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style borrowed from Byzantium. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (late 12th century) near Novgorod, in North-Eastern Rus' - the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).
Culture of Rus' during the period of fragmentation
For Russian spiritual culture of the mid-XII - XIII centuries. The emergence of “polycentrism” is characteristic - the emergence of distinctive cultural centers in different regions of Rus'.
Chronicle writing is being further developed. If in the XI - early XII centuries. the centers of chronicle work were only Kyiv and Novgorod, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing was carried out in most of the centers of the resulting feudal principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. Despite the “regional” nature of chronicling, chroniclers of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. did not isolate themselves in their narrow regional events, to one degree or another covering the history of all of Rus'. Of the chronicle texts that have reached us, the chronicle of the centers of Southern Rus' is most reflected by the Ipatiev Chronicle (late 13th century), the North-Eastern - by the Laurentian Chronicle (beginning of the 14th century), the Radziwill Chronicle and the chronicle of Pereyaslavl of Suzdal (13th century).
At the end of the 12th century. One of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merit was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. It is dedicated to the above-mentioned unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It is no coincidence that it was this hike that served as the occasion for the creation of the work. A number of circumstances - the eclipse of the sun that accompanied the campaign, despite which Igor continued the campaign, the death and capture of the entire army, the prince's escape from captivity - were unique and made a strong impression on his contemporaries (in addition to the Lay, two lengthy chronicle stories are dedicated to them).
“The Tale of Igor’s Host” in the form that has come down to us was created, according to scientists, in the fall of 1188 (at the same time, perhaps its main text was written back in 1185, shortly after Igor’s escape from captivity, and in 1188 ... additions were made to it in connection with the return of his brother and son Igor from captivity). Its unknown author, the solution to whose name never ceases to amuse researchers and lovers of the Lay (unfortunately, almost all existing versions do not stand up to serious criticism), was, in any case, a resident of Southern Rus', a secular person and belonging to the highest stratum of the ancient Russian nobility - boyars.
The main idea of the “Tale” is the need for unity of action of the Russian princes in the face of external danger. The main evil preventing this is princely feuds and internecine wars. At the same time, the author of the Lay is not a supporter of a single state: he takes the division of Rus' into principalities under the rule of sovereign rulers for granted; his call is directed not to state unification, but to inner peace, to consensus in actions.
Being a work about the events of its time, “The Lay” is at the same time a striking monument to historical thought. It compares the “present” time with past events, moreover, in Russian history (which was rare - usually historical examples in works of ancient Russian literature were drawn from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history). A feature of the historicism of the Lay is an attempt to find in the past the roots of Rus''s current troubles: for this purpose, the author turns to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when the era of princely strife began, which led to the weakening of the country in the face of Polovtsian raids. In his appeal to history, the author of The Lay makes extensive use of epic motifs.
In the second half of the 12th century. (exact dating is a subject of dispute) another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature, “The Word of Daniel the Sharper,” appeared in North-Eastern Rus'. It is written in the form of an appeal to the prince: the author, a native of the lower strata of the ruling class, who has fallen into disgrace, is trying to once again earn the prince's favor and prove to the prince his usefulness as a wise adviser. The “Word” is full of aphorisms. In the 20s or the first half of the 30s of the 13th century. a second edition of this work was created, called “The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner.” It is addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodich, at that time the prince of Pereyaslavl Zalessky. The author of this edition is a nobleman, a representative of a new category in the ranks of the ruling class. A characteristic feature of “Prayer” is a negative attitude towards the highest nobility - the boyars.
Another outstanding work of ancient Russian literature, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” was written in the most difficult days for Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Most likely, it was created at the beginning of 1238 in Kiev, at the court of Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, who then occupied the Kiev table, after receiving news from North-Eastern Rus' about the invasion of Batu’s hordes and his death in battle with the Tatars on the river. City of Yaroslav's brother - Yuri.
This work (which remained unfinished) contains a hymn glorifying the native land, which has no equal in medieval literature, a memory of its former power (under princes Vladimir Monomakh, his son Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest) and a discussion about the “disease” - strife, undermined the strength of Rus' after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Like the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” turns to the past of his fatherland, trying to understand the reasons for its present-day troubles.
In the epic genre, mid-XII - early XIII centuries. - the time of the appearance of such epic stories as “Saur Levanidovich”, “Sukhman”, Novgorod epics about Sadko, cycles of songs about Prince Roman (the prototype of this hero is Prince Roman Mstislavich Galitsky).
Stone construction continues to develop (mainly temples, but stone princely palaces also appear) and church painting. In the architecture of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. there is a combination of local traditions, forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style borrowed from Byzantium. Of the surviving monuments of architecture of this era, the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (first half of the 12th century) and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (late 12th century) near Novgorod can be especially highlighted; in North-Eastern Rus' - the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (second half of the 12th century), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1234).
Bibliography
To prepare this work, materials from the site http://www.bestreferat.ru were used
In the XII - XIV centuries. The development of culture took place in the difficult conditions of the feudal fragmentation of Rus'. In the ancient Russian culture of this time, new successes were observed. The cultural features of this time include the emergence of local differences in the cultural life of individual lands. Given the presence of a common basis, already in the 12th century, dialects with local linguistic features appeared in isolated lands. Local features appear in chronicles, architecture and painting. At the same time, the all-Russian principles of culture are preserved. Important centers of ancient Russian culture in the south included the following cities: Kyiv, Chernigov, Galich, Kholm, etc.
Despite feudal fragmentation, the desire for unity was reflected in the literary works of the 12th century. In particular, the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” expressed deep concern about the fate of the Russian land, made an ardent appeal to the princes to stop discord, unite and organize resistance to the nomads.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, the nature of chronicle writing changed. New centers are emerging in Chernigov, Kholm, Vladimir-Volynsky, etc. Family and clan princely chronicles and biographies of princes are being written.
In Zvenigorod and Brest, birch bark letters were found, as well as in some cities bronze writing devices on wax tablets, which indicates the development of education. Educated people Those who knew foreign languages worked in princely offices. They prepared texts of letters and conducted diplomatic correspondence. The texts of the letters of the Galician-Volyn princes written in Latin have been preserved, demanding the return of cloth from the ship that crashed to the merchants of the city of Vladimir.
The architecture of the region has achieved great development. The Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir (1160) has been preserved. It repeats the plan of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. In the cities of Galicia, the construction of churches made of white stone began, and various ornaments began to be widely practiced.
Icon painting developed in the Galicia-Volyn lands under the influence of the Kyiv school. The icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria has reached us from the 13th - 14th centuries. (Lutsk), icon of Yuri the dragon fighter on a black horse (XIV century).
Many valuable monuments of this time were lost. But what we know also speaks of an upsurge in the cultural life of the people.
Thus, Kievan Rus was a country of highly developed culture. Already in the 11th century it reached the level of European countries and had two centuries of its statehood. The period of feudal fragmentation in the development of culture was accompanied by the development of local styles in the fine and applied arts, architecture and chronicles. The conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars, although it slowed down the pace of cultural development, not only did not interrupt it, but partly even enriched it. At the junction of the interaction of Slavic and Turkic culture, new phenomena begin to emerge in language, life, customs, and art, which will manifest themselves especially clearly in the next era.
Cultural processes in the Lithuanian-Polish period of Ukrainian history (mid-XIV - mid-XVII centuries) Plan
2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.
3. New phenomena in folklore and literature. Development of artistic culture
1. Historical conditions for the development and formation of Ukrainian culture. The struggle of Ukrainians against cultural assimilation
The development of Ukrainian culture took place in difficult historical conditions during a period that chronologically coincides with the Renaissance in Western Europe.
Having become part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukraine fell into the sphere of stimulating influence of the West. At the same time, the struggle of Ukrainians to preserve cultural identity for many centuries has become main theme their history, their culture.
In Europe at that time, all ideological disputes and contradictions ultimately came down to religion. In Ukraine, this was a debate between defenders of Orthodoxy and adherents of Catholicism. The role of Orthodoxy in public life Ukrainians has grown many times over. In the absence of a state, the church acted as the only means of public self-expression and national unity. But the Ukrainian church experienced difficult times during this period.
The Grand Dukes of Lithuania and then the Polish kings enjoyed the right of patronage. Moreover, they appointed the Kyiv Metropolitan himself. The most terrible product of the patronage system was corruption. Given this state of affairs, the cultural influence of the church was very limited.
Brotherhoods played a major role in supporting Orthodoxy - public organizations merchants, artisans and other layers of Ukrainian society. They appeared back in the 15th century. But their role intensified especially in the second half of the 16th century due to the increased oppression of the Orthodox religion in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
2. The spread of education and the emergence of higher education in Ukraine.
In the field of education, the traditions of Kievan Rus have been preserved. Schools existed in large churches and monasteries, as well as in the estates of large magnates. Gradually the number of schools increased. In the second half of the 16th century. they operated in Lvov, Rovno, Kremenchug, Zabludov, Vladimir-Volynsky and other places.
With the development of the reform movement in Ukraine, Protestant schools appeared. In Goshcha, Belz, Lvov, Berestechka there were schools of Lutheran and Calvinist schools - mostly primary, but in some places also secondary. After the adoption of the Union of Brest in 1596, Uniate schools appeared in a number of cities. The most numerous among the non-Orthodox schools were Catholic. Since the 70s of the 16th century, the Jesuits began active efforts to create schools in the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Thus, at the end of the 16th century. There were a large number of schools in Ukraine, which differed in the level of teaching and religious affiliation. They contributed to the development of education. At the same time, Uniate and Catholic schools defended the ideological and political goals of the ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Ukrainian public understood this. Ukrainian cultural figures took up the task of organizing domestic schools that would operate on a national basis and would meet the needs of the time in terms of content and level of education.
In 1576, a cultural and educational center arose in Ostrog in Volyn. Its founder was Prince Ostrozhsky, a representative of an ancient Ukrainian Orthodox family. A school founded no later than 1578 became an integral part of the cultural and educational center. It marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of school education in Ukraine. In terms of the content of education, the Ostroh school founded the “Slavic-Greek-Latin type” of schools in Ukraine. The first rector of the school was Gerasim Smotrytsky.
Fraternal schools opened a new page in the history of national education. In 1585, the first fraternal school in Ukraine appeared in Lvov. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. such schools also appear in Rohatyn, Gorodok, Przemysl, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, Nemirov, Kamenets-Podolsky, Kyiv and in other cities and villages (about 30 in total). Fraternal schools resisted Polonization, educating Ukrainian youth in the spirit of patriotism and respect for their people, national history, language, culture, and the faith of their fathers. A significant place was devoted to the study of the foundations of the Orthodox religion. The main attention was paid to the study of Slavic and Ukrainian languages. By tradition, they studied Greek and Latin. It was not easy to take root in Ukrainian educational institutions Latin language - since everything Catholic and Polish was associated with it. However, knowledge of Latin was the influence of the time: without it it was impossible to enter European culture and science. Latin language was then the language of scientists, philosophers, poets, the language of teaching at universities and international communication. And Ukrainian polemicists, who were trained in fraternal schools for qualified, informed ideological discussions, had to thoroughly master the enemy’s language.
This led to the emergence and development of Slavic-Greek-Latin schools in Ukraine, whose students studied languages and mastered the “seven free sciences” program. Thus, the work begun in Ostrog was continued by fraternal schools.
In 1632, by merging the Kyiv fraternal school (1615) and the Lavra school (1631), the first higher institution in Ukraine was created, which was called a collegium (colleges in Poland were called educational institutions of the highest type). Calling the new school a collegium, Peter Mogila - its guardian and mentor - proceeded, first of all, from the level of education that it could provide. Thus, an important step was taken in the development of higher education in Ukraine
Mogila's educational activities were not limited to the founding of the Kyiv College. He headed the circle of Lavra scientists, for 20 years he led the book publishing business in Ukraine, founded schools and printing houses in various Ukrainian cities. Mogila wrote most of his works in simple language, trying to convey their content to the broad masses. Associated with his name new stage in the development of polemical literature.
The Kiev Collegium was a higher educational institution of the humanitarian type. However, despite all the efforts of Peter Mogila and his followers, it never received academy status from the Polish government. And it is not surprising, since it not only taught young people the higher sciences, but also trained ideologists of the people's liberation movement, and educated defenders of national culture and faith.
The first official document that the Kiev Academy received to confirm the status of a higher school was the royal charter in 1701.
Lvov University (1661) also played a certain role in the development of education in Ukraine, although this educational institution was founded with the aim of Polonizing the Ukrainian population.
2. New phenomena in folklore and literature. Development of artistic culture.
At the end of the XIV - in the first half of the XVI century. The development of Ukrainian folk art took place on the basis of ancient Russian folklore traditions, in the context of the struggle of the peasantry and urban population against feudal oppression and foreign invaders. At the same time, new historical and social conditions gave rise to new forms of folklore. For example, ritual poetry was largely freed from cult elements. In the vernacular fairy tales, proverbs and sayings were created.
Despite persecution from the church, folk rituals were preserved: caroling, generosity, the Kupala holiday. The clergy condemned these rituals, but at the same time tried to adapt them to their needs. Stoneflies, mermaid rituals and songs continued to be preserved. IN ritual poetry social (primarily anti-feudal) motives and sentiments arise.
In the 15th century, the epic poetry of the Ukrainian people appeared - historical songs and thoughts. They were performed by folk singers - kobzars. The emergence of dumas is associated with the origins of the Cossacks and goes back to the heroic epic of Kievan Rus. One of the most famous and oldest is “Duma about the Cossack Golota.” Dumas and historical ballad songs instilled in the masses a feeling of love for their homeland, aroused protest against its enemies and master's oppression, and glorified national heroes. Oral folk art played big role in the formation and development of literature of the Ukrainian people.
In the chronicles of the XIV - first half of the XVI centuries. The traditions of Kievan Rus continued. Important chronicle works of this period were the “Brief Kiev Chronicle of the XIV - XV centuries.” and the so-called “Lithuanian” or “Western Russian chronicles”. The brief Kiev Chronicle, which used ancient Russian chronicles, also provides valuable information on the history of Ukraine in the 14th - 16th centuries, in particular about the fight against the Crimean Tatars, the Lithuanian-Russian war, describes the actions of Prince K. Ostrozhsky on the battlefields (in particular near Orsha in 1515). The story ends with praise for Ostrozhsky. Some “Lithuanian” chronicles contain facts about the “departures” of Ukrainian and Belarusian feudal lords to Russian state. The idea of Russian chronicle writing about the unity of the historical process of all East Slavic lands found a response in the Ukrainian lands enslaved by Lithuania and Poland.
During this period, new ecclesiastical literary works also appeared: epistles, “words,” lives of saints, etc. A remarkable literary monument of that era was the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon. Along with the lives of the monks and stories about various miracles in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, it contained many facts from public life, as well as regarding the life of the monks. The collections of the lives of the saints of the Chetya-Minea (XV century) were also of great importance.
Simultaneously with the ideas of humanism, the movement of the Reformation came to Ukraine from the West. Under his influence, there was a convergence of the literary and popular languages, and attempts were made to make the Bible accessible to wide sections of society. For this purpose, the books of the Holy Scriptures were translated into the popular language. For example, the Peresopnytsia Gospel. A number of copies of this Gospel, decorated with headpieces, initials, miniatures, and Renaissance-style ornaments, have reached us.
Along with religious literature, secular literature begins to develop. A clear indication of this is the collection “Izmaragd,” which contained about a hundred works written in the “word” genre on moral and everyday topics: about book wisdom, respect for teachers, about integrity and sins, as well as about the rich and the poor. In the 15th century Translated stories about Alexander the Great (Alexandria), about the Trojan War and others also appear. These works reveal the exploits, courage and bravery of the heroes, and at the same time fully depict the reality of that time, the views of different strata of society on modern or political phenomena and events.
In the second half of the 16th century, phenomena characteristic of Renaissance literature appeared in Ukrainian literature: - the formation and development of new genres: polemical journalism, versification, memoir-historical prose, school drama.
In 1574, in Lviv, Ivan Fedorov published “The Apostle” - the first book of Ukrainian printing. The works of representatives of polemical literature G. Smotrytsky, S. Zizaniya, H. Filaret, M. Smotrytsky, Z. Kopystensky left a deep mark on Ukrainian literature.
The pinnacle of polemical literature was the work of I. Vishensky, who branded the treason of renegade bishops, criticized the entire political and state system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and defended the rights and human dignity of the common people.
Religious polemics with Catholicism, Uniateism, and Protestantism are reflected in the literature of the second half of the 17th century. (L. Baranovich, I. Galyatovsky, F. Safonovich, V. Yasinsky and others). Oratorical and preaching prose found its further development in the works of K. Stavrovetsky, the author of “The Teaching Gospel” (1619), Daniil Korsunsky at the end of the 16th century. described his journey to the “holy places” (“Book of Conversation on the Path of Jerusalem”).
From the second half of the 16th century. new forms of historical prose gained popularity (testament of V. Zagorovsky, 1577; recollection of the Moscow events of 1612 by B. Balyki; Ostrozhskaya 1500 - 1636; Lviv (1498 - 1649); Khmelnitskaya (1636 - 1650) ; Gustynskaya (20s of the 17th century) chronicle, etc.).
From the middle of the 16th century. Ukrainian book versification originates.
At the end of the 16th century. - early 17th century dramaturgy arose in the form of recitations and dialogues intended for performance in fraternal schools: “At Christmas...” by P. Berynda (Lvov, 1616), etc.
The liberation war of the Ukrainian people in the mid-17th century ideologically and aesthetically reoriented Ukrainian literature and brought it closer to Russian literature. Literature began to free itself from religious ideology. IN works of art Current problems of social and political life began to be raised and solved.
At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 16th centuries. in the works of artists there was a closer connection with the life and interests of the masses. In the art of this time, interest in man increased, his spiritual world, as well as to nature. Ukrainian artists creatively developed the art traditions of past centuries, enriched their skills by assimilating the achievements of artists from other countries, in particular, the influence of the Western European Renaissance can be traced. Icon painting, preserved mainly in Western Ukrainian lands (Przemysl, Lvov, etc.), reached its peak. Icons arranged in a certain order formed a separate composition - an iconostasis. Over time, the structure of the iconostasis became more complex, and it became an integral part of the interior of the temple.
In Ukrainian icon painting of the 15th – 16th centuries. the influence of the Moscow school is manifested (“Archangel Gabriel” from the village of Dalyava, Lviv region of the 15th century). Sometimes the Gothic influences of Western Europe are noticeable (Peter and Vasily from the village of Lesyatichi, Lviv region of the 15th century).
Miniatures of handwritten works: “The Life of Boris and Gleb” and “The Radzivilov Chronicle” have high artistic value.
The beginning of printing contributed to the further development of the art of book design. In the artistic culture of the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. Significant changes in content and form occurred, and new genres of art (including secular) developed. A pictorial and sculptural portrait appeared (“Portrait of K. Kornyakt”, early 17th century), the tombstone of K. Ostrozhsky in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, 1579. Outstanding artists of this time were F. Senkovich, N. Petkhnovich, S. Korunka.
Thanks to book printing, engraving became one of the leading types of graphics. Books published in Ukrainian printing houses were illustrated with engravings (mostly on wood).
In the architecture of the period under review in Ukraine, the traditions of ancient Russian architecture continued to develop and improve. The architecture of this period acquires a fortification character; it is characterized by severity and grandeur, and limited decorative decorations. Fortress walls, moats and ramparts were erected around cities. The street layout was radial (Lutsk, Medzhibozh) and radial-circular (Vladimir-Volynsky, Putivl), some cities had an irregular layout (Kyiv, Nizhyn).
The compositional center of the city was formed: - the main market square with the town hall, which had a high tower and a cathedral. Both wooden and stone architecture developed. In the first half of the 16th century. A new form of castles appears in architecture - palace castles, in which living quarters were located along the inner perimeter of the palace. They built open two-story arcades - galleries with large windows; and the outer walls of the castles were defensive in nature and had loopholes (castle in Berezhany, Ternopil region, mid-16th century).
Monasteries and fortresses were built.
In connection with the development of crafts and trade, old and new cities grew, and in them public buildings - town halls, houses of craft workshops, new types of two-three-story residential buildings: shops and various workshops were located on the ground floor, and living quarters on the upper floors.
In the western lands of Ukraine, which were in closer relations with Western Europe, in the architecture of residential buildings, forms of the Italian Renaissance were increasingly manifested in a unique local interpretation (for example, the house of Kornyakt, architect P. Barbon, 1572 - 1582, Lviv). Temples, the walls of which, built of white stone or brick, had no decorations (Pokrovskaya Church in Lutsk); centric, so-called churches - rotundas (the village of Gotryani near Uzhgorod); three-nave churches with 1, 3, 5 domes (Epiphany Church in Ostrog).
New trends are emerging in iconic architecture. The main customers for construction were the gentry, urban and rural societies, whose tastes and aesthetic ideals influenced church architecture. The relationship with the advanced humanistic culture of Western Europe also had an effect. All these trends were reflected in the construction of domeless churches. The completed type of church-fortress is the Church of the Intercession in Sutkivtsi (XV century).
After the liberation war of the Ukrainian people, a new stage in the development of architecture began. The influx of population to the Dnieper region and Slobozhanshchina caused the rapid development of old cities (Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslav) and the emergence of new ones (Kharkov, Sumy, Akhtyrka, Lebedin, Poltava).
In the XV–XVI centuries. a new species has appeared heroic epic- thoughts, kobzar art and instrumental music playing among bandura players developed.
At the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium (since 1701 - an academy), musical notation was studied, choral singing and playing musical instruments were common, there was a choir and a symphony orchestra. There were also choirs in the Chernigov, Kharkov and Pereyaslav collegiums.
During this period, Jesuit school theaters appeared in Ukraine (Lvov, Lutsk, Vinnitsa, etc.). They staged dramas written in Latin and later in Polish.
Thus, despite difficult political conditions, severe social oppression and religious oppression, the culture of the Ukrainian people continued to develop. She, relying on ancient Russian traditions, achieved success in many areas.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, three all-Russian cultural centers were formed around Galich, Novgorod and Vladimir. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each of them developed its own aesthetic environment, developed its own artistic ideals, your understanding and expression of beauty. And this did not indicate the collapse of the ancient Russian people and their culture. Despite the existence of local schools, styles, and traditions, ancient Russian culture continued to remain fundamentally united. The time of feudal fragmentation was not a time of decline, but of the flourishing of ancient Russian culture.
Chronicle
From the 12th century A new period begins in the history of Russian chronicles. Chronicles began to be kept in all principalities, chronicle writing acquired a regional character. The most significant centers of chronicle writing, in addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, are Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Smolensk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and other cities. Local chroniclers focused on local events, but considered the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of the Russian state and preserved the Tale of Bygone Years as part of local chronicles. Family princely chronicles appear - biographies of individual princes, historical stories about relations between princes. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. Individual traits appeared in local chronicles. So, for the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which tells about events in the life of the Galicia-Volyn principality from the beginning of the 13th century. before 1292, the style of presentation is characterized by secularism and poetry. The chronicle pays main attention to the struggle of the princely power with the rebellious boyars. The Novgorod chronicle is especially distinguished by its local character. Novgorod chroniclers describe in detail the events of intra-Novgorod life from the 11th to the 15th centuries. from the position of the boyars, eminent merchants and other representatives of the ruling class. The Novgorod chronicle reflects the life of Novgorod with its stormy political events and a fierce struggle both between various clans of the richest landowners and property owners, and between various social groups Novgorod land. At the same time, the style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by simplicity and efficiency, and the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir princes laid claim to all-Russian primacy, so the Vladimir-Suzdal chroniclers sought to give their chronicles an all-Russian character, to present themselves and their land as the successors of Kievan Rus, and for this they widely used religious argumentation, which was not the case in other chronicle centers.
Literature
High level of development of culture and literature X - XI centuries. prepared the ground for the creation in the 80s of the 12th century. a remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature "The Lay of Igor's Campaign". "The Lay" is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 in the Polovtsian steppe of the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. That campaign had a strong impression on his contemporaries, as it was accompanied by a number of unique circumstances: solar eclipse, the death of most of the Russian army, the capture and escape of Igor. The author not only narrates the events of the campaign, but also reflects on what happened, expresses his attitude to what happened, evaluates the campaign and Igor’s defeat in comparison with the events of the history of his country, with his thoughts about the fate of the Russian land. The author of the Lay is unknown; the answer to his name has been exciting researchers for several centuries. Most likely, he was a resident of Southern Rus' and belonged to the highest stratum of the nobility - the boyars. But the unknown author was able to overcome the narrow interests of his principality and class and rise to the height of understanding of all-Russian interests. The author calls on the Russian princes, in the face of external danger, to unite and “stand up for the Russian land” and protect the southern borders of Rus'. Central to the Lay is the image of the Russian land. “The Lay” narrated the events of its time, at the same time, it is also a monument to historical thought. What happens in it echoes past events from Russian history, which was rare at that moment. Typically, authors drew historical examples from biblical and Roman-Byzantine history. The peculiarity of the historicism of this work is that the author tries to find in the past the sources of current troubles and turns to the events of the second half of the 11th century, when princely feuds began in Rus', which led to the weakening of the country in the face of the Polovtsian danger. "The Word" is written in an extraordinary poetic language. The famous cry of Yaroslavna, Princess Euphrosyne, Igor’s wife, is unusually expressive. Yaroslavna begs the wind, the river, the sun not to harm the wounded prince and return him to native land. The Lay embodied the characteristics characteristic of Russian literature of the 12th - 13th centuries. features - connection with oral folk art, with historical reality, patriotism, citizenship.
Architecture
The period of feudal fragmentation is a time of widespread stone construction in all principalities. In the capital cities wonderful architectural structures, and their number was more than ten. In the architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation, its own distinctive features. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the buildings of the previous period in the smaller scale of the buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and simplicity of decoration. A typical structure was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the 12th century. Byzantine influence in architecture was weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of tower-shaped temples, unknown to Byzantine architecture. At this time, Rus' joined the pan-European Romanesque style. This inclusion did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of the buildings: arcature belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. The architectural buildings of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the 14th century. Galician-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. For many centuries, the Catholic Church destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so restore the original appearance of the churches Western Rus' especially difficult. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kievan composition with Romanesque construction techniques and elements of Romanesque decorative decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kyiv plinth, from which they built churches of a wide variety of plans: four- and six-pillars, pillarless, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas- evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. ABOUT high level Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by the Church of Panteleimon near Galich (beginning of the 13th century) with its perspective portal and carved capitals.
The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes became hired leaders of the squad guarding the city and its possessions. The princes lose Detinets and St. Sophia Cathedral, which passes into the possession of the archbishop. The prince was evicted outside the city - to Gorodishche, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settled and built monasteries - fortresses with temples. Of the churches built by order of the princes, the most significant are the Annunciation, St. Nicholas and St. George Cathedrals of the Yuryev Monastery. The most remarkable of the princely churches is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located chapters, shifted to the west, which is uncharacteristic for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the mixed masonry technique, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is virtually devoid of decoration, since Novgorod limestone is friable, oversaturated with shells and difficult to process. History has not brought to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod chronicles - “Master Peter”. One of the most striking architectural schools of the period of feudal fragmentation was the Vladimir-Suzdal school. It began with the construction of the first stone church in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh in the 11th century; its heyday occurred during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212). The Vladimir princes pursued a policy that contributed to the birth of the Great Russian nationality in the North-East of Rus', laying the foundations of a new Russian statehood. The Vladimir-Suzdal architectural school was distinguished by solemnity, grace, and rich decor, which reflected the claims of the Vladimir princes to all-Russian primacy. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave birth to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded the city named after Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereyaslavl - Zalessky. The earliest of the temples there that have reached us were erected under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Dolgoruky became the first independent prince of the Rostov-Suzdal land. The prince chose the village of Kideksha, 4 km from Suzdal, as his residence. Here in 1152, in the center of the princely palace, probably by Galician craftsmen, the Church of Boris and Gleb was erected. The Church of Boris and Gleb is the only surviving building from the princely palace. This is a single-domed, four-pillar, three-apse church. It is made of massive blocks of local white limestone. The decor of the church is extremely modest for a princely building. At the same time, in 1152, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior was founded in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. This temple is also single-domed, four-pillared, and three-apsed. The temple is also almost devoid of decoration, but is distinguished by the clarity of its architectural design and the austere simplicity of its appearance. Andrei Bogolyubsky was the first to elevate the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. To decorate his new capital - Vladimir, he deployed major construction. In 1164 in Vladimir, in imitation of Kyiv, the Golden Gate was built in the western part of the city facing Moscow. They simultaneously served the city as a defense center and a ceremonial entrance.
On an artificially constructed hill not far from Vladimir, Bogolyubsky built his country residence. Thus, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace (1158-1165) arose, or rather, a real castle - a fortress, which included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince’s tower, etc. The center of the entire ensemble was the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the patroness of the Vladimir land and the Vladimir prince. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. It was probably in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloodied, crawled down the stairs, as the chronicle unforgettably vividly tells about this. Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158-1161), designed to become the main cathedral of the new center of Rus' - Vladimir. He even asked the Patriarch of Constantinople to establish a metropolitanate in Vladimir separate from Kyiv and to subordinate the bishops of northern Rus' to the Vladimir metropolitan, but he did not receive permission for this.
The Assumption Cathedral is a majestic six-pillar temple, built of large slabs of white limestone tightly fitted to each other. An arcature belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; the portals are perspective, the windows are slit-shaped. The spinning wheels are decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The interior of the cathedral was no less solemn. The decoration of the temple sparkled with gold, silver, and precious stones. After the fire in the Assumption Cathedral in 1185, the architects of Prince Vsevolod erected new walls around the one-domed six-pillar temple, crowned them with four domes and divided the facades into five parts - spindles. The temple appeared even more majestic and acquired a powerful, truly classical form for Russian architecture.
The brilliant development of Russian architecture was interrupted by the Mongol - Tatar invasion. But the experience of creating majestic buildings, traditions and techniques of architectural schools, especially Vladimir, had a decisive impact on the culture of the new emerging center of Rus' - Moscow.
Fresco painting
In the XII - XIII centuries. V monumental painting- mosaics and frescoes - various Russian lands also developed local schools that had their own characteristics. What all schools had in common was that Russian masters not only mastered the art of composition, but also learned to convey a complex range of feelings.
By the end of the 13th century. its own school of fresco painters developed in Novgorod. This school transformed everything it had and borrowed from outside into a single style, which, according to art historians, is recognized as Novgorod. The Novgorod style is most fully expressed in the fresco paintings of the churches of the Savior on Nereditsa, the Annunciation in Arkazhi and St. George in Staraya Ladoga. The Novgorod style is characterized by a desire to simplify artistic techniques, which was probably dictated by the desire to create art that was understandable to a person inexperienced in theological matters.
Iconography
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. A Russian school of icon painting was formed in Rus'. About two dozen icons have survived from pre-Mongol times to the present day.
The most famous icon of that era is Our Lady of Vladimir. This icon is not only a surviving example of Byzantine easel painting , but also one of the highest achievements of all world art. The name of the brilliant author of this icon is unknown, but his belonging to the Constantinople school is undoubted. Already in 1155, this icon was on Russian soil, where it was delivered from Constantinople. The fate of this icon in our country is unprecedented. According to legend, Mary was painted from life by the Evangelist Luke ("patron of painters"), and on a board from the table on which Christ ate with his Mother. It was kept in one of the churches in Vyshgorod, a suburb of Kyiv. In 1155, Andrei Bogolyubsky, planted by his father Yuri Dolgoruky in Vyshgorod, left Vyshgorod for his native Rostov-Suzdal land. Andrei took with him a local shrine - an icon of the Virgin Mary. In Vladimir, Andrei began to glorify the icon: he decorated it with pearls, gold, silver, and precious stones; built a temple for her - the Assumption Cathedral, established new holiday in Rus' - Intercession (October 14).
Andrei tried in every possible way to emphasize that he and his land were under the protection of this icon. Glorification began in Vladimir, high destiny this image of the Virgin Mary. For centuries it received the name "Vladimirskaya". The most significant events in the life of our country were associated with her; more than once she saved Rus' from enemy invasions. With the rise of Moscow as the new center of Russian statehood, it was transported to Moscow and became a state shrine. In Christian iconography, one of the most beautiful subjects is the image of the young Mother Mary and her son - the God-Man, born to suffer for the sins of people.
In Latin Western world These motives found their most vivid embodiment in " Sistine Madonna"Raphael. Raphael's Madonna is a majestic maiden carrying a baby through the clouds with a childlike gaze. In the Greco-Slavic world, these motifs are expressed in the Our Lady of Vladimir. In Vladimir icon, according to the artist I.E. Grabar, “the most ancient song of motherhood,” the icon painter brilliantly conveyed the inexpressible tenderness and inexpressible sadness in the eyes of the Mother, who knows about the unparalleled fate of her son - martyrdom, glory and power over millions. Nowhere in painting are maternal grief and sorrow so expressed, but at the same time the eternal joy of existence. Joy coexists with sorrow, revealing itself in the sweetest tenderness. This iconographic type, born in Byzantium, was called “Eleusa” (“Merciful”), and in Russian icon painting received special distribution under the beautiful-sounding name “Tenderness.”
Among the icons of the 12th and 13th centuries associated with Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, there are masterpieces. The mantle "Deesis" (in Greek "prayer" or "petition"), where on both sides of the young Christ mourning angels replace the traditional figures of the two main saints (Mary and John), interceding before Christ for the human race. Ideological meaning"Deesis" symbolizes the idea of intercession. In the eyes of the people, "Deesis" embodied last hope desperate.
Decorative applied arts
During the period of feudal fragmentation, decorative and applied arts continued to develop. Big cities were famous for their master craftsmen. Masters from Galich, Novgorod, and Vladimir improved their skills in engraving, wood carving, gold embroidery on fabric, etc. The production of weapons and military armor received particular development in Rus'. Master gunsmiths made swords, battle axes, spears, sabers, knives, shields, and chain mail.
Novgorod gunsmiths in the 12th - 13th centuries, using new technology, began to produce saber blades of much greater strength, hardness and flexibility. Far beyond the borders of Novgorod, the products of Novgorod goldsmiths were famous. Two signatures have survived krateira masters of Bratila and Costa and two Zion mid-12th century Novgorodians have achieved great skill in the manufacture of products from bone, glass, wood, metal. Large handicrafts - shopping center becomes Vladimir. It is inhabited by thousands of skilled architects, builders, masons, carvers, jewelers, and painters. Among them, blacksmiths and gunsmiths played a significant role. The high level of Vladimir-Suzdal gunsmiths and goldsmiths is evidenced by the so-called helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the third son of Vsevolod the Big Nest and father of Alexander Nevsky. It was found in 1808 near Yuryev-Polsky on the site of the Battle of Lipitsa, which took place in 1216 between the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest, who decided the fate of their father’s inheritance. The shape of the helmet is traditional, but technically it was very different from the helmets of the 9th - 10th centuries.
The entire body is forged from one piece, rather than riveted from individual plates. This made the helmet significantly lighter and stronger. The helmet is decorated with chased silver plates. On the overlays of the upper part there are images of the Archangel Michael, next to them are Saints Theodore and George, and at the back is Saint Basil. Along the edges of the plate there is an inscription: “Great Archangel Michael, help your servant Fedor.” Fedor is the baptismal name of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. Nowadays the helmet is one of the most valuable exhibits in the collection of defensive weapons of the Moscow Kremlin Armory. Thus, in general, during the pre-Horde period, a powerful ancient Russian culture was created. Next, difficult times will come in Rus', the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars will cause significant damage to the culture of Rus', but Russian culture will not perish. She was able to express such a high spiritual ideal, she had such powerful creative abilities, such a large supply of original artistic ideas, which is far from exhausted. Old Russian culture XI - XII centuries laid the foundations for the culture of the new Russian statehood - the Moscow Kingdom.
