Gallery Jeu-de-Paume: a detailed description. Corps for playing ball - St. Petersburg State University

Programs Olympic Games are constantly changing: some sports are recognized by the IOC, others, on the contrary, are losing their invaluable status. At the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, golf, fashionable in high society, and rugby, popular in Europe, will appear before the audience. But the position of the struggle has been pretty shaken - it stayed in the Olympics-2020 program only thanks to the active campaign of the Russian Olympic Committee. Others were less fortunate - Lenta.ru recalls sports that have been excluded from programs over the century-old history of games.

Je-de-pom

Same de poma roots (from French Jeu- a game, paume- palm) go back to the Middle Ages. The ancient game immediately became the ancestor of tennis, squash, racquetball (a game reminiscent of squash) and handball. The first mention of jeu-de-pome appeared in the XIII century - even then it was played in France, Italy and England.

The rules are extremely simple: you need to throw a small ball over a stretched net or rope with your hand. Then, as a game projectile, they began to use a bat - a wide stick, and later switched to prototypes of rackets. The place to play jeu de paume became special indoor halls called "tripot" (from the French tripot). Only in Paris there were more than 200 such premises, which immediately attracted the capital's bourgeois - the game was affordable mainly for members of the royal court and high-ranking nobles.

They played jeu de paume for money: the bet was an ecu coin (equal to 60 sous) - an artisan on this amount could quite calmly exist for several weeks. The ecu was divided into four parts of 15 sous, each of which was worth one point. From here, by the way, came the scoring system in modern tennis, only "45" was replaced by "40" for the convenience of commenting - shouting short number is much more energetic.

The game was included in the program of the 1908 Olympics in London, but, ironically, only the British and Americans took part in the first and last Olympic tournament, and not its creators, the French. American Jay Gould became the winner.

However, even after more than a century, the same de paume reminds of itself - the department of physical culture and sports of St. Petersburg State University has a building for this game, built at the end of the 18th century. The building to this day bears the historical name Jeu de Paume, and this year the leadership of St Petersburg University has planned to carry out its restoration.

Lacrosse

This sport originated on the other side of the planet - in North America. And the game was not a hobby higher strata society, but part of the training process of warriors of Indian tribes.

Thanks to lacrosse, the Indians increased their endurance. No one approved the standard size of the field, so the game could take place on a court several kilometers long with the participation of hundreds of people. The rules were simple: drive the ball into the goal using some kind of club and your own legs. Often important issues were decided in lacrosse matches - the Indians played in a "tribe against tribe" format, contesting, for example, the right to territory.

More than a century ago, lacrosse was recognized by the IOC and entered the program of two Summer Games- 1904 and 1908. In St. Louis 1904, three teams competed with each other - the US team and two Canadian teams, with the second Canadian team made up of Indians. Then the organizers of the tournament did not really care about documentation and reporting, so the members of the Indian team showed up under folk names. For example, for Canada-2 were announced: Black Eagle, Crescent, Nighthawk and Afraid of Soap Man.

The Indians lost to the Americans in the semi-finals (0:2), and in the match for the gold medals, the Stars and Stripes were defeated by the first Canadian team with a score of 8:2. In 1908, only one match was played in lacrosse, between Canada and Great Britain. The North Americans lost again, after which lacrosse lost its place in the Olympic program.

Roque

Roque resembles a mixture of mini-golf and billiards. Game process takes place in a small fenced area. Participants must drive the ball exactly into the small goal, which is helped a lot by the skill of playing “from the board”.

This sport has stood out from roque She appeared in the program of the Olympic Games only once - in 1904. Moreover, as many athletes came to the tournament as years have passed since the beginning of the century. As a result, the first and only roque champion was the American Charles Jacobs. And it is unlikely that anyone else will join it soon - only small local competitions are held in this sport, and the American National Roque League has not actually been functioning for ten years.

Croquet

Players compete in the ability to quickly pass the ball through the gates placed along a certain route with hammer blows. Croquet originated in England, but only the French were participants in the Paris 1900 Olympics, and some of them were relatives of each other. Like roque, croquet lost its place in the Olympic program for lack of entertainment.

Rackets

Another invention of British sports fans. The essence of the game is simple: two or four participants take turns sending the ball into the wall so that when it bounces it hits the opponent's half. When one player makes a mistake, the right to serve is transferred to another, and so on.

The British achieved the inclusion of rackets in the program of the 1908 Olympics in London, where they competed for two sets of awards - in singles and doubles. Only seven Britons applied to participate. In the individual tournament, Evan Noel became the best, and Wayne Pennell and John Jacob Astor V won gold in the doubles. After the London Games, racketeering at the Olympics was not heard.

Basque pelota

Pelota is a type of tennis and a prototype of squash. The player hits the ball against the wall, his opponent beats back. The name of the game comes from the ball itself - "pilota".

The Basque pelota originated over 500 years ago and became widespread in South America and Western Europe. The Spaniards and the French especially succumbed to the hobby, and they played a set of awards among themselves at the 1900 Olympics. Then the pelota was excluded from the main program of the Summer Games, but fans of this sport do not let it "die". Nowadays, the International Federation of the Basque Pelota is functioning quite successfully, which regularly organizes world championships, and at the 1968 and 1992 Olympics the game was shown to the audience as an indicative one - the IOC does not officially recognize it, but gives it the status of a developing sport.

AND from ancient historical sources it is known that the Aztecs of America, the inhabitants of ancient Greece and Rome, ancient Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Persia and China were fond of playing with a small ball, which was played either with the palm of the hand, or with a wide stick or leather belt.

Famous Italian artist Giovanni Battista Tiepolo ( Giovanni Battista Tiepolo) in the painting "The Death of Hyacinth" (1751) depicted a racket with balls in the lower right corner. Of course, the ancient Greek mythical hero did not die from grueling tennis battles, but from a headshot that was thrown by Apollo during the competition between them. But, nevertheless, the plot of Tiepolo suggests that the painter wanted to emphasize ancient origin tennis.

For several centuries, historians have wanted to establish a direct link between these games and the ball games of the early Middle Ages, but the lack of documented evidence is likely to leave this question unanswered. At present, researchers of the origins of tennis tend to think that the games of antiquity have gone through a slow evolutionary process with many transformations.

B Most medievalists believe that the prototype of tennis appeared in France in the 11th century under the name "jeu-de-paume" (fr.- Jeu de Paume) (literally translated from French "playing with the palm"). The balls called "esteufs" were of various sizes and weights.

There is evidence that there were 30 artisans in Paris in 1292 ( paumiers) who made balls ( Esteuf). For comparison, for example, at that time in the French capital there were 8 libraries and one supplier of paints.

They played on the streets paved with stone, which improved the rebound of the ball. The streets were chosen, as a rule, narrow, so that it was possible to pull them with a ribbon or rope. The game drew crowds of spectators who cheered loudly and emotionally.

Somewhat later, in the XIII-XIV centuries, games similar to the French "jeu-de-paume" became popular in Italy (the game was called "gioco della pall"; "pallone"; "pallacord"), in England ("game of palm"; " tenness"), in Spain ("long-pom"; "kurt-pom"), in the Basque Country ("pelota"), in Valencia ("pediment").

At first, commoners were fond of "jeu-de-paume", but over time, the French monks liked the game. Church officials played, as a rule, in stone-floored galleries that surrounded the inner courtyards of monasteries. These rooms were called "balhouses" ( Ballhaus).

In the surviving manuscripts there is a story by Abbe Cochard about the popularity of this game among the French monastic brethren in the 12th century. He also mentions the tradition that existed in Orleans, when the bishop gave gifts to his parishioners a week before Easter, in response to which they presented him on the day of Christ's Resurrection several beats (fr.- Battoir) and a set of new balls so that the abbot and the canons could play tennis. This tradition also existed in other monasteries in France.

WITH over time, monastic fun becomes fashionable among the crowned persons and the nobility (for more details, see the article " Blue-blooded tennis"). For the love of the English royal nobility for the game, she received the name "royal tennis" ( Royal Tennis). But the term "royal" was introduced only in the middle of the 20th century to distinguish this form of tennis from tennis, which appeared a little later under the name "real tennis" ( Real Tennis).

The status of kings and their courtiers did not allow playing in the presence of a lower class. Therefore, in order to protect themselves from unwanted looks, indoor tennis halls with side galleries for spectators of the nobility began to be built in many castles. Such palace courts appeared in: Poitiers, the Louvre, Fontainebleau, Pau, Amboise, Compiegne, Plessis-le-Tour and other castles. The indoor game is called "Jeu de Courte Paume".literally" courte"- short, what was meant - a court limited in length, in contrast to " Jeu de Longue Paume"- games on a long court, that is, on the street, where the length of the court was not limited ( the game was of an entertaining nature, and Lung-pom competitions began to be held since 1817).

It is assumed that the first indoor court appeared in Poitiers (France) in 1230. But it is known for certain that in 1285 a court was built in Valencia (Spain). Today, only the name of the street reminds of it - "Street of the Gentlemen of the Tennis Court."

The addiction of the nobles to tennis not only gave impetus to the appearance of indoor courts, but also the introduction of new gaming accessories. The reason for this was swelling and abrasions of the hands, resulting from repeated palm strikes on a hard and heavy ball ( in history, deaths from hitting it in the head are known). And this circumstance did not suit the aristocratic fans of the game. They then began to first use a special leather glove, and then a wooden shield worn on the hand. As for the racket, they came into wide use in the 16th century, and the first mention of a bit in the form of an oar dates back to 1505. Although, the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer ( Geoffrey Chaucer) in the poem "Troilus and Cressida" ( Troilusand Cressida) (1380), describing the ball game, used the term "racket" ( aut.- Shakespeare also has a poem with the same name, but it does not mention the ball game, although in his other works, his heroes are involved in tennis more than once).

Recently, archivists at the Scottish University of Glasgow discovered a book called The Theater of Fine Arrangements ( Le theater de bons engins), published in Paris in 1540. ) from Toulouse. It contains 100 drawings with descriptions on different topics and among them two drawings are dedicated to jeu de pom. This is one of the first books in French to contain printed images of the first tennis players with rackets ( racket history).

WITH Among the French kings, Louis X (1289-1316) was the first tennis fan. They were fond of the game, also John II (1319-1364) Charles V (1338-1380), Charles VI (1368-1388), Louis XI (1423-1483), Charles VIII (1470-1498), Francis I (1494-1547) , (1519-1559), Charles IX (1550-1574), Louis XIII (1601-1643), Louis XIV (1638-1715), Louis XV (1710-1774). However, royal tennis was most developed during the reign of Henry IV (1553-1610).

In the British Isles, royal interest in tennis began with Henry V (1387-1422), as evidenced by William Shakespeare's tragedy Henry V. The successors of his passion were: James I (1394-1437), Henry VII (1457-1509), Henry VIII (1491-1547), James V (1512-1542), James VI of Scotland and I of England (1566-1625), Charles I (1600-1649), Charles V (1500-1558), Charles II (1630-1685), George IV (1762-1830).

It is known from the annals that representatives of the royal families of Spain and Italian nobles were also quite good players. For example, the first indoor tennis court in Italy was built in 1457 in Belriguardo ( Belriguardo) - the country residence of the Dukes d "Estov ( d"Este). From Italian archival documents dated 1490, a game like tennis was named: "pallacorda" (Italian - "palla" - ball; "corda" - rope). This name indicates that the game involves separation playground rope. In addition, “corda” is consonant with the word “court” ( author's note – The grid began to be used in the early years of the 16th century).

In a letter from the famous humanist Paolo Cortesi ( Paolo Cortesi) it is narrated that, while in Florence, he was involved in an interesting tennis match on the court of the Medici Palace. The team that included him, his son, and the head of the Florentine Republic, Lorenzo di Piero de Medici (1449-92), lost to a team from Rome, and 25 ducats were paid for the loss.

In the Latin Encyclopedia of Court Morals (known as " De Cardinalatu"), compiled in 1510 by Cortesi, states that courts should be in all secular and church palaces. At the same time, the author gave a description of two types of courts: open on courtyards and closed - halls, which can easily be re-arranged both for playing pallaccord and for other events.

Pope Julius II ( Julius II), the patron of Cortesi, considered the pallacorde the most useful of all ball games, and therefore it must become the most popular pastime of the Italian nobility after the hunt. Following his instructions, Henry V (1500-1558) - Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (King of Italy, Spain, Germany) fell in love with the game.

P It is generally accepted that with the accession to the throne of the King of France, a representative of the Bourbon dynasty, and England - the Tudors, the "Golden Age" of medieval tennis began in these countries.

H Oh kings, there are kings. Nobody prevented them and their nobility from playing tennis, but the townspeople began to be forbidden to play it. The fact is that the city and monastic authorities were worried that the game makes it difficult to move along the streets, the noise of the fans disturbs the peace of the townspeople, merchants and artisans leave their jobs, young people who are studying skip classes, and the clergy shy away from their monastic duties.

Therefore, from the middle of the XIII century, the persecution of "street" tennis began. There are many examples of this in historical sources. I will cite a few of them.

The decision of the synod of the city of Rouen (France), dated from 1245, forbade the monks to play ball.

The status of the college at the monastery of Marmontier (France), adopted in 1390, prescribed to students: " ... the opportunity to play if they get the permission of the master and, provided that they do not interfere with others. You can only play in college behind closed doors".

Due to the massive absenteeism of students who are keen on tennis, the mayor of Orlian (France), in order to return them to the bosom of the university, issued a decree on the closure of 14 tennis halls.

In 1397 Main judge of Paris banned the playing of tennis every day except Sunday, since " merchants and other townspeople leave their work and family responsibilities, which adversely affects the state of society".

In Leiden (South Holland), in 1463, the city authorities passed a decree according to which tennis courts should not be located closer than 40 yards from churches or monasteries.

In Bruges (Belgium), it was forbidden to build tennis courts in the city center.

In England, Edmund Lucy, Bishop of Exeter, wrote a memorandum to the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1452: We have received information that many members of the monastic brethren are participating in the devilish game of tennis on the grounds of the Church of St. Mary and even on the consecrated burial place of Christians. They play on holidays, however, as well as on weekdays, turning the church into a fair. At the same time, the name of the Lord is mentioned, dirty words and curses, as a result of which squabbles, scandals and meaningless battles of words arise. This lawless game in a reprehensible way offends the believers who come here to pray... Moreover, they dishonorably encroach on the rights of the church, and therefore should be subject to condemnation and punishment, up to and including excommunication". At the same time, he turned to the city fathers: " Our church is no longer a holy place - all around laughter, screams and ignoble games. We learned that even some of the monks participate in the ball game commonly referred to as tennis. And for exercise they use the walls of houses".

Thus, tennis players became troublemakers, they were fined and even imprisoned. And, nevertheless, in the XV-XVI centuries the game gained universal recognition, and the British began to call it "real (real) tennis" ( Real Tennis). You ask: why the "English"? And why "real"? Firstly, tennis in the 15th century began to be cultivated in England. On this account there is beautiful version that it was shown to the English King Henry V by the French Duke Charles of Orleans, who headed in 1415 ( during the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War) French troops at the Battle of Agincourt (France) and captured by the British ( spent 20 years in captivity). Although, in English documents there is a reference to real tennis, marked in 1365. Second, if secular society played tennis, mainly for the sake of fun, then in other classes there were many players for whom tennis was of a competitive nature, and first of all a game for money. Therefore, tennis, like cards and dice, is becoming a game for real stakes, and not a pleasant pastime or exercise for health.

Despite the fact that tennis was a purely male occupation, in the Chronicle of the Province and District of Hainaut ( Annales de la province and comté du Hainaut) (1854) you can find information about the successful performance in 1427 in Paris by a young woman of 28 years old under the name of Margot from Hainaut ( Margot du Hainaut) (Hainaut - province of Wallonia). Few men managed to beat this medieval tennis star. As noted, at the end of her performances, she took with her a fairly large amount of money.

ABOUT popularization of tennis in Europe in the 15th-16th centuries, many different documents have been preserved: royal decrees, monastic messages, magistrates' decrees, travelers' notes, treatises, etc. In this regard, two works by famous humanists of that time are the most curious. This is a collection of "Family Dialogues" (" Colloquia Familiaria") Dutch traveler and philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam ( Erasmus of Rotterdam), published in Latin in 1524 ( the collection was reprinted many times under the titles: "Home conversations", "Friendly conversations", "Easy conversations", "Conversations easily"). In one of the conversations, the following dialogue is reproduced (with abbreviations):
"Nicholas: Nothing develops the body so well as playing ball. Just take rackets to sweat less.
Jeremiah: No. They remind me of a fish net. Let's leave them to the fishermen. The palm is easier to hit.
Nicholas. Okay, I don't mind. What are we playing?
Jeromy.: It is possible on clicks: money will be more whole.
Nicholas. Well, no, my forehead is more precious than money.
Jerome. And me too. But at least some interest must be brought into the game, otherwise we will fall asleep from boredom.
Nicholas. That's it.
Jerome. Which side wins three times will receive a sixth from the defeated drachmas. But with the condition that the winnings be spent entirely on a feast for all those who played.
Nicholas. Excellent condition. Approved! Now it remains only to cast lots in order to break on the sides. Everyone has almost equal strength, and, therefore, it is not so important who is with whom.
Geroni. But you are much more experienced than me!
Nicholas. Let's say. But you are luckier.
Geroni. Does luck matter here too?
Nicholas. She rules everywhere.
Geroni. Good time! Serve! But who serves without warning, loses the serve.
Nicholas. Then here you go.
...........................
Nicholas. Mark the back line with a shard or a stone, or, if you like, with your hat.
Geroni. Better than yours.
Nicholas. Take the ball again.
Geroni. Come on. And keep score.
Geroni. Hooray! We have fifteen! Hey, prove that you are men! If you hadn't beaten your place, we would have won again! And now they are equal.
Nicholas. Not for long. We have thirty! We have forty-five!
Nicholas. Now it's getting serious. Great! We are ahead!
Geroni. Don't stay long! What did I say? Equalized again!
Nicholas. For some reason Fate hesitates for a long time, as if it can not decide who to give the victory to. Oh, Fate-Fate, if you are favorable to us, we will give you a hubby! Hurray, heard our promise! We won! Write it down with chalk so you don't forget.
Geroni. It's evening soon, and we've been sweating a lot. It's time to finish. Let's count the win.
Nicholas. We won three drachmas, you two, for a drink, so there is one left. By the way, who will pay for the balls?
Geroni. All together, each his share: we will not take anything away from the winnings - it is too meager.

Another work is written by a friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Spanish philosopher Luis Vives ( Lluis Vives). In his Dialogues, written in 1555 in Latin, Vives describes a conversation between two respected gentlemen from Valencia - Borgia and Scintilla. The conversation is mainly about how the game of tennis in Spain differs from the French game.
Scintilla. In Paris, I saw many tennis courts that were more practical and more comfortable than yours.
Borgia. And what, I would like to know?
Scintilla. For example, the court on St. Maarten Street.
Borgia. Are there public courts in France like we have in Spain?
Scintilla. Those are the ones I'm talking about. And not just one, but many. For example, in the streets of Saint-Jacques,Saint-Marseille and Saint-Germain.
Borgia. Do they play the same way as we do?
Scintilla. More or less, except that their players wear caps and special shoes.
Borgia. And what does she look like?
Scintilla. The shoes are made of felt.
Borgia. It would probably be good for us too.
Scintilla. Yes, it is good for parquet floor. In France and Belgium, they play on a flat and smooth tiled floor. Their balls are smaller than ours, more solid. They are covered in white leather. And they have different padding. They stuff balls not with pieces of cloth, as we do, but with dog hair. That's why they don't play with their hands.
Borgia. What are they playing with, then, with their fists?
Scintilla . Of course not. They use rackets.
Borgia. Are the rackets strung with ropes?
Scintilla. Not at all, with veins as thick as the fifth string of a harp. Their grid is the same height as ours. If you hit the ball into the net, you lose a point. Two lines limit a place on the site called"chases" (chases). In addition, there are four gradations of the score: 15, 30, 45 and advantage, as well as equality (deuse), when the score is equal. The ball can return from the flight (volley) or from the first bounce, but if it bounces twice, then the ball is considered lost.

IN In Italy, tennis began to gain popularity in the 16th century. Thus, the representative of the Pope in Spain graph Baldassare Castiglione ( Baldassare Castiglione) in his treatise “The Courtier” (it.- Cortigiano) (1528) wrote that tennis is not only a noble occupation, but also a game that promotes development " harmony of the body as a whole, speed and flexibility of each part. Tennis is the only sport that is the king of games and the game of kings! "Beautiful, isn't it?

Italian sculptor and painter Benvenutto Cellini ( Benvenuto Cellini) in his memoirs entitled "Life" ( Vita) recalled that in 1540 Francis I invited him as a jeweler and presented him with a small castle "Petit Nesli" ( Petit Nesle). There was a court on its territory, where the court jeweler often practiced the game.

In 1555, a book by the Italian priest Antonio Scaino da Salo was published in Venice ( Antonio Scaino da Salo) "Treatise on the game with the ball" (Italian - Trattato del Giuoco della Palla). The author studied and received the priesthood at the University of Padua ( oldest university in Italy). It was there that he became seriously interested in studying various ball games. His treatise, consisting of XX chapters on 315 pages, describes six games that became direct "ancestors": rugby, football, baseball, volleyball and, of course, tennis, which, according to the author, he loved most. The book talks about the rules, the scoring system, the equipment and the size of the courts ( first attempt was made to standardize them), technique and tactics of games, as well as sports etiquette and dress code. Skaino in his work gives an argument why tennis " very useful for relaxing the body, recuperating and resting the mind, as well as for military training". With regard to the latter, he indicates that playing tennis produces qualities " remain calm under any circumstances, be neither too bold nor too timid, be able to restrain the enemy". And from a tactical point of view, a tennis match: " allows you to learn how to: plan a battle and capture fortresses, choose the best time for an offensive or retreat, understand the nature of the enemy, what he is - brave or cowardly, ingenuous or cunning, unrestrained and patient".

Da Salo dedicated the book to his friend, patron and tennis aficionado Duke Alphonse de Este ( Alphone d'Este) - the last ruler of the sovereign Duchy of Ferrara. The reason for writing was a serious dispute that once arose during the game between the duke and his rival, and since large bets were made on the game, the controversial moment was discussed quite lively, including by the audience.

IN at the beginning of the 16th century in France appeared enough a large number of players who played jeu de paume for a living. Therefore, in 1527, Francis I, in order for tennis players to rally taxes to the royal treasury, approved, as such, the profession of "player in jeu-de-paume" ( paumiers) and even signed the first patent. Thus, 1527 can be considered the year of the official birth of professional tennis.

In 1571, the "Corporation of Tennis Professionals" (French - Corporation des raquettiers qui fabriquent les raquettes de jeu de paume), the Charter, which was approved by Charles IX himself (1550-1574). In it, all players were divided into three categories: students ( Apprentices), partners ( Associates) and master ( Maitres). Masters of tennis enjoyed special privileges ( Maitres Paumiers), who were given the right to a guild and their own coat of arms with tennis symbols. ( author's note - 1. By about 1350, the word "paume" acquired two new meanings: "ball game" (i.e. tennis) and "tennis room" (court), although a direct translation means - " palm". Therefore, in different translations the phrase "maitres paumiers" is used either "master of tennis" or "master of the court". 2. Guild - an association of artisans and sellers, created to protect their interests and gives a monopoly on their type of activity; guild members were bound by mutual obligations, including mutual assistance, had a hierarchical structure and the possibility of increasing rank, in this case not earlier than three years later).

The activities of the tennis masters were varied and included: making rackets and balls, teaching the game, participating in demonstration performances, maintaining the courts, providing game suits, organizing, refereeing and servicing games.

A similar association of professionals, with its statute, was created in Florence around 1550.

G Enrich of Navarre, becoming King of France Henry IV, issues a Decree of October 15, 1594 “Articles on the position and organization of masters and owners of tennis courts”, the content of which is quite curious. Here are some excerpts from it:

• In Paris and its environs there should be four guilds of tennis masters who should lead the representatives of this profession. The master must be elected for two years by counting votes.
• Guild leaders must conduct inspections at least once a month to ensure that business is conducted in order and accuracy.
• Those who want to become members of the guild must demonstrate their skills in the presence of leaders and other members of the guild.
• No one in a city, suburb or university has the right to own a workshop or court without the permission of the city authorities, and until he has received the title of master.
• No one, regardless of his position and wealth, has the right to rent a court until he has received the title of master.
• The master has the right to own only one workshop in Paris or its environs.
• No one can receive the title of master until he demonstrates good character, sobriety and high morals.
• No one but the masters of tennis has the right to sell balls, whether they are new or old.
• In the event of the master's death, his wife, as long as she remains a widow, has the right to conduct her husband's business and keep the court open.

Henry, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre.

Consequently, tennis masters were granted exclusive rights to own and lease courts, to manufacture and sell balls ( note by author - For some reason, the document does not talk about rackets).

Since the royal nobility needed tennis rackets and balls, as well as partners and coaches, the profession of "master of tennis" became not only an honorary one, but also a significant income.

IN about many European universities, indoor courts began to be built, on which students held free time. So, for example, on a map of Cambridge in 1592, between several college buildings, you can clearly see the courts. Now this place is built up with university buildings, and the name of the street "Tennisnaya" only reminds of the courts. Somewhat later, in Oxford, on the territory of Merton College, one of the oldest courts was built, which has survived to this day.

French writer François Rabelais Francois Rabelais) V satirical novel"Gargantua and Pantagruel" (1533), ironically describes the activities of the giant Pantagruel, who shone more on the court than in university law classes. "If your pockets are stuffed with tennis balls, your head is a lawyer's hat with a brim, your feet have an irrepressible thirst for dancing, and your brain is solid cotton, then you are quite ripe for the degree of doctor or candidate".

And how can we not remember here, beloved by all of us, the work of Alexandre Dumas "The Three Musketeers" (1844), in which the events described refer to 1625-1628. At the beginning of the story we read: ... Since the king's reception was scheduled for noon, Athos agreed with Porthos and Aramis to go to a tavern near the Luxembourg stables and play ball there. They invited d'Artagnan to go with them, and he agreed, although he was not familiar with this game.". In the original regarding " ball games"the word is used" paume", which implies a game similar to tennis. Therefore, the heroes of Dumas played exactly tennis, and two by two.

IN in his book A View of France, published in 1594, the secretary of the English embassy in Paris, Robert Dallington ( Robert Dallington) writes: The whole country is literally covered with courts. There are far more of them than churches. It seems that the French are born with a racket in their hand. There are more players than there are pub-goers in the British Isles. They are devoid of any moderation in their passion. They can be seen playing tennis during the hot part of the day, when most normal people don't think about going outside." ("pub" - English pub).

IN 1596, now the Venetian ambassador in Paris, Francesco de Irni ( Francesco d'Ierni) in his report reported that in the French capital there were 250 special houses for playing tennis, 40 in Orleans, 25 in Rouen, 20 in Poitiers, 15 in Bordeaux, 13 in Le Mans, 8 each in Bourges and Angers ( author's note - This is not counting the courts in castles such as the Louvre, Blois, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Fontainebleau, etc.). And French citizens who are directly or indirectly related to tennis ( brokers, masseurs, suppliers of materials for the production of inventory, etc.), is about 7000.

By the beginning of the 16th century, the leasing of courts and the manufacture of tennis equipment became very profitable business.

In 1599, the book of tennis master Jean Forbe was published ( Jean Forbet) called "The Beneficial Effects of Tennis on the Mind and Body" (fr.– L "Utilité qui provient du jeu de la paume au corps et à l" esprit). The first part dealt with the benefits of playing tennis and was written in a poetic form. The second part, more voluminous, was called as follows: “The rules of the royal and noble game of tennis, as an example of other games and activities, in 24 paragraphs, warning about all difficulties and disputes during the game, especially if there is more than one player on each side of the court . Written in Paris in 1592 by Forbe the elder, the master of this game.

Here are a few paragraphs from these rules:

§ Gentlemen who wish to fight each other in tennis must not take false oaths or blaspheme on the court. First of all, the players must, by rotating the racket, determine who to start (author's note - Pre-match lot for choosing the serve). The first serve is performed in the name of God and for the glory of noble ladies (author's note - It is a warm-up).

§ At the very beginning, participants can make bets. Whoever wins the first set sets the stake. There are four games in the set, but if the score is equal after four games, then the advantage must be played. But if the set consists of six games, then the advantage is not played.

§ The game must be followed by one or two markers ( author's note - Brokers acted as game organizers and referees). If the ball bounces off the floor twice, they are required to warn about it by shouting "accidental hit" (chasse morte) (author's note - There were no restrictions on the number of bounces from the walls and roof that were part of the court; beat him to the ground).

§ The marker must be fair to both players and not favor one of them in the interest of the public and its stakes.

§ If the ball hits the net and falls in front of it, a point is lost.

§ If the ball hits a player or touches his clothes, he loses a point.

§ The score must be announced on time and the players must not complain that they are not ready.

§ If the server asks the receiver "Are you ready?" and the receiver says "Yes" and then yells "Not ready", he loses a point.

§ If there are difficulties in determining the score, the players have the right to contact the public and listen to its decision (author's note - The audience acted as consulting judges).

§ If the players made a mistake in the score and it was discovered before the end of the game, the score is changed one game back (author's note - The game starts with a score of 0:0).

§ In the event of a dispute, the ball must be replayed.

§ Usually the match consists of three sets and can be interrupted due to rain or nightfall. In this case, the losing gentleman must pay the full cost of the court, and the one who leads in the score only half. If the players want to play the match next time, they must do so by common consent.

§ The royal game of tennis is designed for noble people, it involves the delicate behavior of the players. Everyone must pay their own expenses, and if someone cannot complete the match, he must pay a third more than his opponent.

§ Those difficulties and disputes that may arise in the game, in addition to those described above, are resolved by contacting the master of tennis, markers or spectators.

There is evidence that in France at that time it was customary to wish not "bonjour" (good afternoon), but "bonjoueur" (good game) when meeting.

IN In 1610, in France, the "Community of tennis masters, owners of workshops for the manufacture of rackets, balls and other items for tennis" was created (fr.- Communauté des maîtres-paumiers, raquetiers, faiseurs d "éteufs, pelotes et balles), which was given the status of a monopoly manufacturing organization. In addition to their basic functions, they were given the right to train their profession. The training period was three years, after which exams were taken, and a patent was issued for independent work. This patent was allowed to be inherited. Thus, dynasties of tennis players began to arise.

WITH The neighborhood of France and Britain, their close ties in many areas, could not but affect tennis. As already noted, in England, the passion for tennis and the construction of courts began with the accession of Henry V to the throne (1413).

In the 15th century, courts appeared in the Tower of London, in Windsor, in Westminster. New professions arose: racket makers (balls were made only by the French), markers, tennis masters. Many chroniclers of some time mention a certain Richard Styres ( Richard Stayres), who played tennis professionally and earned his living from it.

By the end of the 16th century, there were 14 courts in London alone.

The tennis boom continued in England until Oliver Cromwell came to power in 1645. Under his rule, tennis courts began to be dismantled or used for other purposes, such as grain storage. However, forty years later, when Charles II (1630-1685) returned the monarchy, interest in tennis revived, and everything returned to normal. It was at this time that the first English version of the rules of real tennis was published in the Arsenal Academy (1668). Written by Randall Holm Randall Hill).

In 1767 William Hickey ( William Hickey) organized a club inBattersea (a district of south London), in which they began to playreal tennis on outdoors . The game was called "field tennis" (f ield tennis ). Lord Aberdare in his book« Royal and ancient game of tennis» ( The royal and ancient game of tennis, 1977) quotes a report Hickey (p.19) " In the summer we had another club at Battersea Fields... and consisted of very respectable people... The game we played was an invention of our own "Field Tennis" which provided a noble exercise... Our regular meetings were every two weeks" .

It is impossible not to ignore another game that influenced the development of tennis. While real tennis was considered the privilege of the aristocracy, a game called "rackets" became popular for the non-gentleman class ( Rackets). It originated in the 18th century in the yards of English debtors' prisons and urban slums. Rackets were played without a net in walled yards ( like squash), and the score was kept on a natural series of numbers up to 15 points.

IN Returning to France, I note that in during the XVII century, tennis in it began to gradually lose its position, in particular due to the fact that the owners of the courts began to rent them out to actors - this turned out to be a more profitable business. For example, it is known that Moliere's troupe often gave performances in provincial tennis halls.

Tennis indirectly left its mark on the history of the French Revolution, when on June 20, 1789, the deputies of the third estate gathered in the tennis court hall and swore an oath not to disperse until a constitution was drafted. This event is captured in the famous painting "The Oath on the Tennis Court" (1791) by the French artist Jacques Louis David. But this did not help the survival of tennis in France, but rather Napoleon and Wellington banned all noble pastimes, including tennis. Although contemporaries claim that before the revolution, Napoleon was also fond of tennis.

TO late XVIII century, the number of courts in France was reduced to 50 (of which only 10 remained in Paris). Many famous players make multiple tours across the English Channel, where they perform and transmit their skills in English cities. The first and most eminent among them was Guillaume Barcellon ( Guillaume Barcelona), royal player ( paumier de roi) at the court of Louis XIV. A portrait of him by Eten Louis has been preserved ( Etienne Loys), located in the Wimbledon Museum. And, although the decline of tennis was increasingly felt in the country, nevertheless, its level was higher than in other countries. Therefore, the first real tennis world championship was held in Paris in 1740. In history game types sports, it was generally the first competition of this rank. Frenchman Clear became the first world champion ( Clerge). Two subsequent championships were also held in Paris: in 1765, the winner was Raymond Masson ( Raymond Masson) - the royal player of Louis XV, and in 1785 - Joseph Barcellon ( Joseph Barcellon) is the son of Guillaume Barcelona. The next World Cup took place in 1816 already in London, where the Frenchman Marchisio ( Marchisio) outplayed Englishman Philip Cox ( Philip Cox), but that's another story (see "History of Tennis: 19th Century").

One of the best players the second half of the 18th century, the son of the first champion, Antoine-Henri Masson, was also considered ( Antoine Henry Masson(1735-1793), which was captured on canvas in 1769 by the English painter John Hamilton Mortimer.

IN about the second half of the 18th century, the court of Catherine II became interested in the fashionable aristocratic game. Of the two games: jeu de paume and real tennis, the ladies and gentlemen of the Russian imperial court preferred the first, since at that time the fashion prevailed in everything French.

The first pavilion in Russia, called Jeu-de-paume, was built by Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli in the 1750s in wood, and in 1769 it was rebuilt in stone. From France, they "discharged", as they said then, "the master of the ball game" Monsignor du Plessis ( Du Plessis). The contract stipulated that he would teach the game not only to the heirs to the throne, but also to pupils of the land gentry cadet corps, in curriculum which included lessons on the court. Initially, the court was located in the courtyard of the Menshikov Palace. In 1793, for this aristocratic educational institution a new building was erected, which housed a hall for playing jeu de paume, as evidenced by the memorial plaque "Jeu De Paume is a house for playing ball. This is the first indoor sports facility in Russia" ( aut.- In 1867 it was transferred to the St. Petersburg Academic University and in the same year the Medical Gymnastics Society rented it and converted it into a gym. Since 1870, it has been replaced by offices of physical geography, anthropology, and museum exhibits. From the end of 1901 to the present day, "Jeu-de-paume" has been used for the physical education of students.).

H no doubt, you have a question, why is the game called "tennis" (Tennis)? Unfortunately, the origin of this word is not known for certain. The most likely version (in my opinion) is the origin of this word from the French "Tene" (Tenir) (lat. Tenez), meaning: "keep". This shout warned the opponent about the introduction of the ball into the game.

Here is another version based on English sources the end of the XIV century, in which the word "Teness" (Teness) appears. Thus, one of the court documents speaks of a certain William Terry of Canterbury, the owner of a travel shelter, on the territory of which he allowed his guests to play the forbidden game "teness". The fact is that during the Anglo-French Hundred Years War (1337-1453) any gambling was prohibited, including with the ball.

In some chronicles relating to this time, there are other similar words: "tenetz", "tennesse", "tennys".

T Also, the origin of the scoring system (the so-called "fifteen-point") has not been unambiguously established: 15-30-40 (45) -60. The first mention of the tennis scoring system in the surviving literature dates back to 1316, the second - to 1354. The treatise of Antonio Scaino da Salo (1555) also features the same scoring system. But for sure, no one undertakes to assert its origin. There are several versions.

First version. Back in the 14th century in France, jeu de paume was played for money. At that time, the French monetary system was based on the sexagesimal principle, that is, the denomination of a larger coin was 60 monetary units and it was exchanged with four coins of a lower denomination equal to 15 units. Such a denomination was a coin according to some sources at 15 sous, according to others - at 15 pence. As for the coin with a face value of 60 units, different sources point to "donye" (lat. - denarius), "crown" or "luidor" (the latter was equated to 60 centimes). Why such a discrepancy in the names of coins? Yes, because the time of the introduction of the tennis account has not been precisely established, and in those days each king issued his own money, and the kings changed often. The materials published on the website of the French Tennis Federation indicate coins: "double gold" ( Double D "or) – 60 su ( Sou) and "gold donye" ( Denier D"or) – 15 sous.

Won a ball draw - get a dona, lost - give it back. The bet in one game (the prototype of the modern game) was a coin worth 60 monetary units.

Later, the British changed "forty-five" to "forty" for brevity. This happened approximately in the first half of the 19th century. Anyway, from the book by Donald Walker ( Donald Walker) "Games and sports" ( games and sports), published in 1837, also features "forty-five".

Second version. It is also associated with money. The laws that existed at that time limited the amount of bets in gambling, including tennis. For example, in medieval Germany, bets over 60 dinars were prohibited. So they bet 60 dinars per game, and since the coins that were in use at that time had a face value of 15 dinars, it turned out just 15 for each point.

According to the third version since the period of Babylonian culture ( the beginning of the II millennium, 539 BC in present-day Iraq) there was a system of calculus called "sixty-fold". In it, the initial measure was equal to sixty units ( ed. - The origin of this system is also associated with monetary units: shekel and mina, which had the ratio: 1 mina = 60 shekels).

It is assumed that on each side of the court there was a dial with an arrow (like a scoreboard). When winning each ball draw, the arrow moved to the mark corresponding to a quarter of a circle, which corresponded to 15 minutes. The arrow has passed a whole circle, which means one game has been won.

There is also such an assumption: instead of dials, there were servants or brokers and with the direction of an outstretched hand, at the end of each draw, they indicated the score. That is, when the score is 0:0, both hands are at the sides. Won the first rally of the ball - right hand extended horizontally to the side, won again - the hand was raised, the next win - the left hand was extended to the side, the last win was signaled by raising the left hand up. Thus, two raised hands corresponded to the won game ( game).

Fourth version . In the initial period of the late Middle Ages, the aristocracy was fond of the influence of celestial bodies on the fate of a person by determining the degree of the ecliptic, which corresponded to a specific horoscope. These measurements were carried out using an astronomical instrument - the astrolabe. And the number "60" was cornerstone astronomy since Babylon.

Fifth version. best example sexagesimal system is time: 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour. Therefore, some historians suggest that it was a quarter of an hour (15 minutes) that became the starting element in the tennis scoring system. Meanwhile, if we take into account that the clock face was introduced by the Dutch astronomer Christian Huygens after the invention of pendulum clocks (1656), then the version of the origin of the account from time intervals becomes untenable.

Sixth version related to the length of the indoor tennis court ( Courte Paume) of 45 feet on each side. The player, when winning the first and second rallies of the ball, moved forward 15 feet, and when winning the third - 10 feet, that is, he became a "netman", and since the game from the fly was allowed, the closer to the net, the greater the tactical advantage ( aut.- I like this approach and it can be used in the training process, which will improve the blows both from the rebound, and from the half-flight, and from the flight).

There is a lot of discussion about the origin of the counting system, based on the above hypotheses. But few asked the question: why do you need to win exactly four draws and at the same time, the difference in winnings should be at least two? It seems to me that if there is an answer to this question, then, most likely, it will be possible to eliminate the previous doubts.

Be that as it may, but with confidence you can contact that there is no such system of counting in any sport.

Now regarding "zero". In tennis terminology, the word "love" is used to score the corresponding "0" ( Love). And again, there is no unequivocal opinion on its origin. Some argue that the British, when a player has not won a single draw ( those. did not receive money), were expressed as follows: " No love, no money" (Neither for Love nor for Money). That's "zero" for you. Well, where can you get away from English pessimism. Not what we have: " Unlucky in the game, lucky in love".

Other "lavas" are associated with the consonant French word "L" oeuf, meaning "egg", which resembles the shape of "zero".

And one more unusual word used when announcing the score: "deuce" (eng.– Deuce), meaning "exactly" ( when the score in the game goes to "over-under"). Here, researchers of tennis terminology agree that it has a French root either from the expression "deux le jeu", meaning "the game of both", or from "deux points" - a game to two points, that is, a player needs to win two points to win in game.

WITH finished counting. Let's move on to another incomprehensible word: "service" (eng.- Service) indicating submission. We are accustomed to perceive this word as a "service". So it was in the beginning. For the aristocratic nobility, putting the ball into the game was considered a shameful element of the game and, therefore, the supply was carried out by the servants serving the players. In connection with this, the term appeared, denoting the supply from the French "serviz", - "service" or from the English "servant" - a servant.

When played with the palm of the hand, it was practically impossible to win the ball from the serve. But with the advent of rackets with strings (XVI century), this strike began to be performed from above, which significantly increased the speed of the ball, and hence the possibility of winning. Noble persons also strove to distinguish themselves from the very first blow in front of the eyes of the public. However, when serving from above, the probability of a miss increased. Therefore, there are suggestions that it was the kings who introduced the second serve. They tell how one of the crowned persons arbitrarily arrogated to himself the right to the second serve. And since he was a king, and cruel and unpredictable, no one dared to object to him. Some English historians attribute this innovation to Henry VIII (1491-1547), a mediocre but gambling tennis player who lost huge sums on the court.

The National Gallery of Jeu-de-Paume in Paris is dedicated to contemporary art. It was located in a building built by order of Napoleon III for a ball game in 1861 in the Tuileries Garden. The ancient game, being the ancestor of tennis, has been widespread in Europe since the 13th century. It was played by d'Artagnan before an audience with the king, which is mentioned in the novel The Three Musketeers. Even the last emperor of France, Napoleon III, played. The constructed building resembles a tennis court; in terms of architecture, it is a twin of the Orangery on the other side of the garden.
Since 1909, the Jeu-de-Paume has been used as a venue for various thematic exhibitions. By 1922, a large-scale reconstruction of the building was completed, after which the gallery exhibited a permanent collection. This did not mean that there would be no more temporary exhibitions. During these years, the Jeu-de-Paume national gallery began to intensively buy works outstanding artists. During this time, works by Picasso, Modigliani, Chagall, Juan Gris, Soutine were acquired.
During the Nazi occupation, the gallery was used as a warehouse for works of art confiscated from the Jewish population. Partially stolen cultural property was transferred to the Fuhrer Museum in Linz. At the same time, the Nazis, who organically did not tolerate the “degenerate art” they called, tried to sell paintings that did not suit them to third countries. Not all the works were sold, and therefore they were burned in the fires near the Jou-de-Pomy on July 27, 1942. Then numerous works by Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dali burned down.
In 1947, the Jeu-de-Paume national gallery became a museum exhibiting the work of the Impressionists, for which natural light was excellent. In 1986, the Impressionist collection was transferred to the Musée d'Orsay. The ballroom has been seriously redesigned by architect Antoine Stinko, who focuses on contemporary art.
Since 1991, the museum has been operating again as an exhibition space for contemporary art. The gallery plays an important role in cultural life capital of France. Today, along with exhibition spaces, there is an audiovisual hall and a bookstore. Relax and drink delicious drinks you can in a cozy cafe. The gallery hosts exhibitions of contemporary painting, photography, graphics, shows films, various kinds of video tapes. Behind the huge windows of the Jeu-de-Paume National Gallery, you can see the unchanged Tuileries Gardens, the River Seine and Place de la Concorde.

Jeu de Pomme

JO DE POM* jeu de paume . 1 . H the name of a French game resembling a Russian lapta. Instead of a field, - on the parquet, and instead of a fight, though in line and in line, but nevertheless, in dances, al in charmitzele, in zhedepome. 1770. Orlov Letters 55. Tonight at 8 o'clock in the Winter of Your Imp. Majesty's house above the arena, where Maître de jeu de Pommes lives, so in the chambers there was a fire thrown out of the chimney, however, it was immediately extinguished, and no damage followed the building. May 18, 1775. A. M. Golitsyn - Ek. II. // Hood. abbr. Ros. 1906 (7-12 58. Love to play in the same depot. FRL-1 2 242. The house in which balls are played in the same de paume. Hell. 1 191. Games with balls (Jeux de paume), arrows, in different parts of the city 1821. Sumarokov Walk.

2. About the cradle of the French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century. - "Hall of the ball game", where gathered June 20, 1789 deputies of the third estate by order of the king not admitted to the palace. D For us, since childhood, Paris has been our Jerusalem, the great city of the Revolution, the Paris of Jeu de paume, 89-93. Hertz. Articles from The Bell, 1866. In this passage, he speaks of the taking of the Bastille, of the oath du jeu de paume, of the transfer of the bodies of noble exiles to. Cases about Pushk. 76.

3. Ball game room. In the zhedepome. Orlov Letters-1 55. On the 22nd, the deputies, by order of the Count of Artois, were not allowed into the jeu de paume, then they went to sit in the church of St. Louis. Pisarev History. sketches. A new oath of consent in the new hall of the jeu de paume could not be expected from the coming Russian parliament. S. Orlitsky Distant years. // Observ. 1898 11 1 12. Cadets received education .. gymnastic; for this latter, a jeu de pommes was arranged, which still exists. Komarovsky Zap. 66. Eya Imp. Majesty deigned to order during her absence to break in the garden a house called a zhedep (stone chambers where the jungfers and maids of honor used to live). 1783. Uspensky Palaces 2 212. debts that multiplied with the multiplication of new buildings at the Tsarskoye Selo Palace, such as: wooden wheelchairs, carousels for fun games, a special structure for games. Yakovkin East. Tsarskogo 3 58. Zhodepaume - a gloomy building rising behind the eastern wall of the corps garden, where it was probably arranged. under the director of the corps Anhalt for this game, which at that time had many hunters in St. Petersburg. A. A. Odintsov Zap. // RS 1889 64 307. Under arrest, for the most part, they put us in the zhe-de-pom. .. You can't think of a worse room. There was literally nothing to breathe. N. S. Leskov Cadet youngster. // IV 1885 4 126. Imprisonment in a zhedep was considered the highest punishment of the kind of arrests and zhedep, if only, existed for first-timers. Olshevsky. // RS 1886 49 74. Zhedepom. . was built in St. Petersburg. in 1769. IN Winter Palace built with a wooden jadep. Now in the courtyard of the University of St. Petersburg, parts of the building of the zhedepoma, erected in the Stable Yard of the Land Cadet Corps, have been preserved. Vedenina 1997 545. || transfer. remembering student years revolution, I must mention the jeu de paume, which is how the students called the old physics classroom in the darkened red brick building. This name alone spoke of the revolution and of the predilection of those years for memories of the Great Revolution of the 18th century. However, our auditorium did not at all resemble the tall, square hall where the deputies of the Estates General took their famous oath. Here,. there were also meetings of the student activists to prepare general student gatherings. Elections were held here and the party struggle was in full swing. This is where community meetings took place. Antsiferov Vosp. 119. A small auditorium in the Old Physical Building (Jeu de paume) of St. Petersburg University. Priroda 1929 4 283. Zhedepomny oh, oh. The head of the zhedepomny house. Hell. 1 191. - Lex. Jan. 1803: jedepome; Sl. 18: jedepaume 1770 (je-de-paume 1798).

Historical dictionary gallicisms of the Russian language. - M.: Dictionary publishing house ETS http://www.ets.ru/pg/r/dict/gall_dict.htm. Nikolay Ivanovich Epishkin [email protected] . 2010 .

See what "jeu de paume" is in other dictionaries:

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TAG Dictionary Ushakov

TAG- 1. MAKE 1, mark, mark, not true. (colloquial). Throw (see throw1 in 1 meaning) little by little, from time to time. Mark spears. 2. MAKE 2, mark, mark, inconsistent. (colloquial). Throw (see throw2) little by little, from time to time until ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Paume f. obsolete A ball game resembling a bast shoe. Dancing was once a pleasant and healthy exercise, like riding, fencing, playing shuttlecock or pom: then everyone could participate in them without pretensions. Vigel Zap. 1 64. Long pom… Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

FREEZE- Freeze, freeze, freeze, prosh. temp. dead, crumpled, sovereign. (to freeze) (colloquial). Same as freeze (see freeze in 1 meaning). All the apple trees in the garden are frozen. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

pom.- pom. room room Dictionary: S. Fadeev. Dictionary of abbreviations of the modern Russian language. S. Pb.: Politekhnika, 1997. 527 p. room Dictionary: S. Fadeev. Dictionary of abbreviations of the modern Russian language. S. Pb.: Politekhnika, 1997. 527 p. pom pom... Dictionary of abbreviations and abbreviations