Osipov Valery Danilovich - “the single language of humanity.” Turkic borrowings. A sign of Turkic borrowings is the so-called synharmonicity of vowels

The historical fate of the Russian people throughout the observable historical space was closely connected with the fate of numerous Turkic peoples: Turks, Kazakhs, Tatars, Bashkirs, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Azerbaijanis, Chuvash, Yakuts. In fact, their number is much larger. From Turkic languages Many words have penetrated into Russian, which in Russian have a strictly defined meaning, and in Turkic languages ​​they also have a literal meaning, explaining the one that is fixed in the Russian language. For example:

LATINISMS OR SLAVANISMS?

A Russian-speaking reader who looked into Latin dictionary, will be surprised by the abundance of words and roots familiar to him. It is especially noteworthy that he will come across such old acquaintances not only among Latin words, migrated to many languages ​​of the world as scientific terms, but also among the simplest, everyday ones. Let's look at the table for examples.

Latin word T.U. THOSE SIBI TIBI M.E. NOS VOS LAEVUS LEO LUNA MARE MATER FUR FLAMMA F RATER DOMUS LEPOS ITAQUE DUO EDO DECEM COPIA PROBO SOMNUS SEMEN SAL TRES TERO STO VIDEO VERTO STROO SUCUS TERTIUS OVIS PAVO POTIO VERTO VERUS VETUS S.U.A. MUS MENSIS MUSCA NASUS NOVUS NOBES NOX NUNC OCULUS IGNIS PRO DOMO MEA NE OS

Translation "You" "you" "to yourself" "you" "me" "us" "you" "left" "a lion" "moon" "sea" "mother" "thief" "flame" "Brother" "house" "beauty" "So" "two" "to eat" "ten" "stock" "sample" "dream" "seed" "salt" "three" "I'm rubbing" "I am standing" "I see" "I'm spinning" "build" "juice" "third" "sheep" "peacock" "drink" "turn" "loyal" "old" "its" "mouse" "month" "fly" "HOC" "new" "cloud" "night" "now" "eye" "fire" "about your home" "Not" " mouth"

cf.: MOTHER cf.: LEPOTA Wed: FOOD Wed: SAVE Wed: PAVA Wed: TWIST cf.: OLD, RAGS cf.: FLIGHT cf.: SKY With r.: NOW Wed.: OKO Wed: ABOUT MY HOUSE Wed: MOUTH

Only those who believe in the reality of such a situation can accept such words as ordinary borrowings (Latinisms in Slavic languages ​​or Slavicisms in Latin).

A rather cultured and quite enlightened Slav accidentally ends up in the country of half-wild and uneducated Latins. He draws the attention of his fellow humans to the fact that each of them has a special growth on their face for sniffing. The Latins, amazed by this discovery, of whom none had previously looked beyond their own noses, naturally turn to the visiting guest with the question: “What is this growth called in your region?” The guest does not skimp on the answer: “Nose.” A murmur of amazement runs through the crowd of Latins. A new word just heard is passed from mouth to mouth. Somewhere a small glitch occurs, like in the “broken phone” game, and now the “nose” turns into “nose”.

An epidemic of a new, but already corrupted word is covering ever wider sections of Latins. Now the guest can no longer cope alone with the error that has taken hold of the masses. He waves his hand and leaves.
But perhaps things were a little different. The Latins and Slavs once developed a single ancestor language. It was from this that they came (or rather, remained) to their words in languages, similar to those shown in the table.

Strange as it may seem, the unity of the languages ​​of the entire planet is also emphasized by interlingual discrepancies and dissimilarities, namely, gaps in names that are present in some languages ​​and absent in others. Verbal gaps are usually grouped around concepts such as "dishes national cuisine", "items of national clothing", "representatives of local fauna and flora", etc. Every language has words that are not found in any other language in the world.

So you have to use foreign words that are already in use among other peoples, and learn your native language from distant and very distant relatives. Such, for example, as the American Indians. We Europeans adopted the following words from them: “hammock”, “tomahawk”, “tomato”. The Australian aborigines taught us the words “kangaroo” and “koala” so that we would not stand in silence, fascinated by the sight of these strange marsupials, not knowing how to address them. In Russian there are many words for the name folk games and fun related to frosty and snowy winter(“snowman”, “sleigh”, “snowballs”, “skates”, etc.). You won’t find exact matches for them in the Arabic language, which serves the warm countries of Asia and Africa.

But even in Russian there are not as many names for snow as there are in the Eskimo language. Instead of the general, careless “snow,” the Eskimos use many more precise names that take into account looseness, depth, density of crust, age and other characteristics. But the Arabs can even afford to confuse snow with ice or frost, calling both the one and the other, and the third with a single word. In short, the languages ​​of the world complement each other with missing words, forming, in the totality of their dictionaries, a single encyclopedia of earthly life, an encyclopedia called “Dictionary of a single universal human language.”

Languages ​​are a lot like paints. Each paint, regardless of color, is capable of conveying a design. Every language is capable of expressing the thoughts and feelings of people.

The paints are uniform regardless of color. Identical tubes contain the same solvent oil. Any paint can be applied to the same canvas with the same brush. Each paint is given a special “charm” by slightly different additives and pigments. They determine the color of the paint. So languages, common, united in their main manifestations, have their own non-essential, but characteristics allowing them to be distinguished.

Paints can be mixed to achieve desired color. Likewise, languages ​​allow mixing in any proportions. Paints allow you to paint pictures and achieve the illusion of natural color, volume and space on a plane. Languages ​​allow you to create texts - illusions of frozen thoughts and feelings.
There is a relationship between paint and the depicted object. When painting snow, we need white paint, and when depicting a forest, we need green paint. There is a similar dependence between a language and the people who use it and live in certain natural conditions.

Imagine that you find yourself in a different environment, in a foreign country, which greets you with unknown landscapes, exotic plants and animals, strange foods and unusual dishes prepared from them. Even the sun behaves differently. At night, foreign constellations look at you from the sky, a different climate forces people to put on different clothes, build houses differently, and have different utensils in the house. A foreign country has surrounded you with foreign sounds and smells. And all this needs to be called words, but there are none in your native language. Then you will greedily turn to the natural and exhaustive source of the missing words-names, to the language of the local population. And foreign words will appear in your speech.

They will fill in vocabulary gaps. Each language is good in its own environment, among its own people, and there is no national language that can alone satisfy all the needs of its speakers, no matter where in the world they find themselves. Each individual language is just a bright patch on patchwork quilt, preserving the warmth of human relations. In Russia, for example, there are no such peculiar words as “mate”, “bombilla”, “gaucho”, “rancho”. We accept them as they are, with the following properties they indicate.

"Mate" or "mate" - the word comes from the language of the Quechua Indians. IN South America it is the name given to an evergreen tree and its dried and crushed leaves, used instead of tea. This drink is also called “Paraguayan tea”. Literally translated from the Quechua Indian language, “mate” means “vessel.” The fact is that the first vessels for mate were made from a bottle gourd with the same name: “mate”. Over time, it moved from the vessel to the drink itself.

They say that there is a peculiar language of mate, depending on the quality of the drink and the methods of its preparation:

Sweet: "friendship";
- bitter: “indifference”;
- with burnt sugar: “sympathy”;
- with milk: “respect”;
- foamy and fragrant: “ardent love”;
- with coffee: “forgiven offense”;
- with lemon balm: “trouble”;
- with molasses: “It hurts me that you’re sad”;
- with cinnamon: “I’m thinking about you”;
- with orange peel: “come get me”;
- very hot: “I, too, am burning with love”;
- cold: “I’m indifferent to you”;
- closed with a lid: “turn from the gate”;
- without foam: “go drink mate somewhere else.”

"Bombilla" is a special metal tube with a filter at the bottom and a mouthpiece at the top. Mate is drunk from a special vessel using a bombilla.

"Gauchos" are Argentine and Uruguayan shepherds, children from mixed marriages of Spaniards with Indian women.

"Rancho" is a Latin American estate.

DICTIONARY KALEIDOSCOPE

The dictionary of a language is a collection of separate but interconnected elements - words and phrases. The kaleidoscope brings together independent but similar elements - colored pieces of glass. There are more words in the language than there are fragments of colored glass in a kaleidoscope, but this is not the point. The main thing is that there is a fundamental similarity between the dictionary and the kaleidoscope. When you turn the kaleidoscope, the pieces of glass spill over, and we see as if completely new pattern, although in fact these are still the same pieces of glass, only turned to us on the other side.

Something similar happens with the dictionary of the national language. If we look at it from a different angle, it will seem to us that the verbal pattern has changed. For example, you are used to looking at your language through the eyes of a resident of the capital, but try looking at it as an inhabitant of a provincial town or village.

The picture will change. Local words from dialects and new geographical names will be added. The pronunciation of words you know will also change. A resident of the Vologda region, for example, will “okat”, clearly pronounce “o” where a Muscovite says “a”. If we move even further, so to speak, turn the kaleidoscope more sharply, the pattern of the “kaleidoscope” will change, and we will switch to another language. And only an attentive and trained eye will notice the practical immutability of the vocabulary.

Let’s take a slight turn of the vocabulary “kaleidoscope” and look at Russian words through the eyes of a Czech. We will not pay much attention to such “little things” as slightly different pronunciation and spelling of words familiar to us. Let's focus on changes in the meaning of the word.

Czech-Russian word BALVAN BAZAR BEDRA BLATO BLESK BODNOUT BODROST CERVI CITAT BUBEN S/A/ CAS DOM HUSLAR HNUJ HRAD HROB HROUDA JAROST JIL JIZVA KAL LASKA LATA LEST LICE MALIR KORIST MRAK NAHRADA METLA MOHYLA PI CHAT OTROK PALEC PARNIK PECENE NATERAC NATIRANI PUSKA RANO ROBOTA RYBOLOV SIP STRANA STRAST STVOL SKOT STAN REPA VRAH TOPOR UMNY ZABA ZOB KAPUSTA

Differences in meaning not "boob, but "big stone" not "bazaar", but "buying" not "hip", but "back" not "swamp", but "mud" not "shine", but "lightning" not “butt”, but “prick” not "cheerfulness", but "good nature" not "worms", but "worms" not “read”, but “count” not "tambourine", but "drum" not "zinc", but "tin" not "hour", but "time" not at home " Cathedral" not “guslar”, but “violinist” not "pus", but "dung" not “city (city)”, but “fortress” not "coffin", but "grave" not "heap", but "block" not "rage", but "cheerfulness" not "silt", but "clay" not "ulcer", but "scar" not "feces", but "dirt, sludge" not "caress", but "love" not "pata", but "patch" not "flattery", but "deceit" not "face", but "cheek" not a "painter", but an "artist" not "self-interest", but "prey" not "darkness", but "cloud" not “reward”, but “replacement, compensation” not "broom", but "rod" not "grave", but "mound" not “shove”, but “prick” not "youth", but "slave" not "(any) finger", but " thumb" not a "greenhouse", but a "steamer" not "cookies", but "roast" not a “rubber”, but a “painter” not “rubbing”, but “coloring” not "gun", but "gun" not "early", but "in the morning" not "(any) work" but "hard work" not "fisherman", but "fishing" not a "thorn", but an "arrow" not "country", but "side" not "passion", but "suffering" not "trunk", but "stem" not "(any) livestock", but "cattle" not "camp", but "tent" not "turnip", but "beets" not "enemy", but "killer" not "axe", but "axe handle" not "smart", but "skillful" not "toad", but "frog" not “crop”, but “bird food” not "(any) cabbage", but "curly cabbage"

By shifting the focus of our vision even further to the west, we can see that in German lands the vocabulary “kaleidoscope” operates in the same way. In Russian words, a “phase shift” is revealed here.

Russian-German word AFFARE AGIOTAGE ALLUREN ANEKDOTE ARTIST BALLON DICTION EPIGRAPH GASTRONOM LEKTION MAGAZIN PHANTAST REPETITION SILO TRUPPE

Differences in meaning not “scam”, but “court case” or “delicate story”, not “hype”, but “stock market speculation”, not “gait”, but “habits”, “habits” not an "anecdote", but a "funny incident" not an "artist", but a "circus performer" not a "balloon", but a "balloon" not “diction”, but “style”, “syllable” not an “epigraph”, but an “inscription on a monument” not “deli”, but “gourmet” not a "lecture", but a "lesson" not a "shop", but a "warehouse" not a "science fiction writer", but a "visionary", a dreamer" not "rehearsal", but "repetition" not "silo", but "silo tower" not a "troupe", but a "military unit"

Such words with a semantic “shift” serve as a target for jokes. In Polish, "order" is called "rozkaz", which is pronounced almost like the Russian "story". There is even a proverb written about this: “In Poland, even an order is a story.” What makes me smile is a phrase in the Serbo-Croatian language that means “the gun fired,” and also written in Russian (Cyrillic) letters: “the gun farted.”

In addition to being a reason for jokes, such observations of the behavior of familiar words in unusual (foreign) conditions can serve as a reason for deep scientific thought.
Similar examples will be found when comparing Russian words with Bulgarian ones.

Russian word WATERMELON BRACELET BAY GRAPE VINEYARD STORM CARGO BEEP DOOR GRANDFATHER VILLAGE END MUG SWEATER PINE CHAIR SHAME VESSEL SHEEPSKIN COAT FOG SHOE CLOUD CHILD CHAIN SKIN HAT TROUSERS GUN SHIRT FRIED PEARL WILLOW SALMON HORSE DANCE

Its Bulgarian equivalent DINYA HRYVNA BAY GROZDE LOSE STORM PRODUCT SIREN GATE DYADKO VILLAGE EDGE BOWL PULLOVER BOR TABLE SHAME KORAB CASING MIGLA SHOES CLOUD CHILDREN VERIGA LEATHER A CAP PANTALONI A GUN RIZA LIVER BEADS WILLOW SOMGA CON DANCE

Moving further and further from our familiar environment (social, landscape, climatic, political, historical, etc.), we observe how linguistic changes accumulate. There comes a moment when we cease to understand the interlocutor. Now there is no time to laugh about individual discrepancies. And we conclude: before us is a different language, alien, foreign.

Now we need a translator, a communication mediator. The criterion of understanding-misunderstanding is the most important in establishing the boundaries of languages, but in itself it is very vague. A similar situation arises in a single linguistic community, when a child does not understand an adult, a non-specialist specialist, or one person another because this “other” puts some other, his own concepts into familiar words. Then the situation is assessed as follows: “You and I speak different languages,” although formally the language is the same.

By explaining something to a child in a language that he can understand, or to an amateur, the essence of scientific or technical terms, we translate from an incomprehensible language into an understandable one within the same national language. An intermediary translator who translates from a foreign language into your native one does the same thing. The labels “one’s own”, “alien”, “native”, “foreign” often obscure the essence of the process itself - the choice of language units that are understandable for both communicating parties.

The language system gives the speaker the opportunity to guess the meanings of even words that he does not know and has never heard of. If there is the word “postcard”, then in principle there could also be “closed”, and “player” would have an alternative “winner”. A Russian-speaking person can guess the meanings of many Czech words based on the meanings of cognate words in their language.

And although there are no such words in the Russian language, they could well appear in it. The language system allows this, habit does not allow it. A child who has mastered the language system, but has not yet undergone sufficient language training, uses in his speech a lot of words he himself has invented, understandable, but unusual, and therefore funny. The variants “shichka”, “gusopaska”, “forest man”, “nogach” and the like remained unrealized in the Russian language, but entered the speech of the Czechs.

Short human life, but even during this fleeting time that is allotted to a person from birth to death, you can have time to gain some experience and change your views on the same subject two or three times. Today I am no longer who I was yesterday, and tomorrow I will not be who I was today. At the very beginning of my linguistic career, I famously divided words into “us” and “strangers”. I liked the views of the fighters for purity native language. In my speech I tried to refuse everything that seemed foreign to me. Later, I began to notice more and more a layer of “no one’s” words, something in common that links many languages ​​into a single bundle. Now in the “general” column I place almost all the words into the fate of which I managed to look.

Once upon a time it was clear to me that the word “samovar” is its own, originally Russian, because samovar comes from “sam” and “cook”, that is, from words more familiar than which it is difficult to imagine. The word “football”, of course, I considered alien, alien. It comes from the English words “foot” - “foot” and “bol” - “ball” and is literally translated “foot ball”. I was ashamed that the Russians never bothered to translate this Anglicism into their language, as, for example, the Arabs did. And now in the Arabic word “quratu al-qadam” you cannot immediately recognize the meaning of “football”.

I persuaded myself with the following argument: “All the languages ​​of the world borrow foreign words. We took the word “football” from the English, and they took the word “samovar” from us. So a simple exchange took place. In sports terms, a draw, one-one.”

Digging into the roots of words brought new information. The Russian "sam" turned out to be in family relations with the English “seim” - “the same” (pay attention not only to the consonance between “sam” and “seim”, but also to the similarity of meanings: “sam” - “the same”). The root in the word “cook” turned out to be close to the root of the English “faye(r)” - “fire”, and “cook” means “to expose water to fire”. Again, a double rapprochement: in form “cook” - “faye(r)” and in content “fire” - “expose to fire”. The English “foot” - “foot” is not at all far from the Russian “path” or “traveler” - “stepping with one’s FEET”, and the word “bol” - “ball, ball” is visible not only in the Russified words “bullet” , “ball”, “bun”, “pin”, but also in the original Russian word “gurgle”, which contains a clear hint of the sphericity of the drop. Not to mention the consonance “bol” - “gurgle” and the fact that the fall of a drop onto the surface of the water causes the appearance of a water bubble (why not a ball?).

Another connecting thread between “bol” and “gurgle” is the English “boil” - “to cook”. “Bol” and “boil” are consonant and related, and “boil” and “gurgle” (in addition to consonance) are also close in meaning: where they cook, there they gurgle. Moreover, there is a certain semantic proximity between the concepts of “samovar” and “ball”, since the sphericity of the gurgling water bubbles merges with the sphericity of the ball. However, it’s time to stop here so as not to go too far in our parallels.

So, in foreign words Ah, there is a fair share of familiar features that do not allow us to consider them completely alien to the Russian language. For the Russian dictionary, if they are foreigners, then they are certainly not infidels. Both our own and others at the same time.

In order not to confuse myself and others, I decided to consider such foreign words as my own.
It seemed to me that I was speaking Russian. However, after listening to my speech, I was surprised to find that I was getting confused. Italian language, when it comes to music (“adagio”, “bass”, “tenor”, ​​“piano”), in French, when talking about cute everyday excesses and tricks (“muffler”, “pots”, “make-up”), in English when computer matters are involved, to Latin when I need to give the exact name of a plant or animal. It is beyond my strength to remove everything Greek from my speech (“angel”, “icon”, “drama”, “melody”). I noticed that German left a lot of inclusions in my speech, however, like Turkish.

Tyutchev’s lines about the Slavic brothers who were “dumbed down by the German” and “disgraced by the Turk”, to a large extent, apply to myself. From all this I concluded: in my speech I use a mixture of languages ​​in the same way as the Italians, French, English, Greeks, Germans, Turks do, and the Latins-Romans did in their time. In the hope of finding a positive example worthy of imitation, I turned to creativity the best masters Russian word, to Pushkin first of all. He also faced the question: to use or not to use foreign words in his Russian speech. He resolved this issue positively. The novel "Eugene Onegin" is replete with inclusions from English, French, Italian and Latin languages. He even flirts a little with them, not forgetting to apologize to the reader and the imaginary censor.

She seemed like a sure shot
Du come il Faut (Shishkov, forgive me:
I don't know how to translate).
And a little further:
That autocratic fashion
In high London circle
It's called vulgar. (I can’t... I love this word very much, But I can’t translate it;
It’s still new with us, and it’s unlikely to be honored.)
But trousers, tailcoat, vest, All these words are not in Russian;
And I see, I apologize to you, that my poor style is already
I could have been much less replete with foreign words.

I was unable to find the differences between the Russian word “mama” and a word that sounds the same with the same meaning in all the languages ​​I know. And how does the Arabic “mama” differ from English, French or Russian? We will find foreign words in the works of all great Russian writers and poets. Any national language is like a magpie's nest. It was built from twigs and blades of grass collected from the area. And only the thin bedding is made from its own feathers. Not to mention that this nest contains objects that the magpie found attractive. People also introduce fashionable foreign words into their language in order to show off them in conversation and also build their speech from available verbal material - words drawn from the linguistic environment, environment.

We learn to speak from others: from elders, from previous generations. In any language there is a law: “Whoever you mess with, you’ll gain from,” the law of re-interpretation. Communicating with each other, peoples share their words. In principle, any word in a language can be called a borrowing.

The boundaries between “us” and “stranger” in language are fluid, transparent and subjective. It would not be an exaggeration to say that all earthlings speak the same universal language, which is based on the sounds of the human voice. But every large community of people does not use the entire universal language, but only a small part of it, necessary for everyday needs.

Very close in origin and very similar friend It is customary to group languages ​​into groups (“families”). One of these groups is called “Slavic languages”. This is a whole fan made up of individual Eastern European languages. Natural, understandable and legitimate admiration for a single national language should not result in belittling the beauties and charms of another language. No matter how magnificent a single peacock feather may seem, it is not better than the entire peacock's tail. Neither language can be considered a corrupted version of another.

The tiny European state bears the proud name: “Grand Duchy of Luxembourg”. The residents of this state inscribed their cherished desire on the obelisk in the center of the capital. From the point of view of a German, the inscription is made in corrupted German, and from the point of view of a Luxembourger, it is in the purest language of Letseburg (Luxembourgish). The inscription reads: "Mir volle bliwe, wat mir zin." That is, “We want to remain who we are.”

Here are a few examples that show the closeness of the Slovak and Russian languages:

BEZ NAS - WITHOUT US
MYZ BRATOM - WE ARE WITH YOUR BROTHER
CIERNY CHLIEB - BLACK BREAD
DRUZBA NARODOV - FRIENDSHIP OF PEOPLES
HLADIT" PO RUKE - TROKING YOUR HANDS
BUDU THERE ZAJTRA - (THEY) WILL BE THERE TOMORROW
VENAG NA LYZIACH - SKIING
ODLOZIT" DO VECERA - POSTPONE UNTIL THE EVENING
LAMPA VISI NAD STOLOM - LAMP HANGING ABOVE THE TABLE
AKO HROM Z JASNEHO NEBA ~ LIKE THUNDER FROM A CLEAR SKY
Or about the similarities between Czech and Russian:
JA I TY - ME AND YOU
POD VODU - UNDER WATER
BUD ZDRAVA - BE HEALTHY
SVETLE PIVO - LIGHT BEER
DOPIT DO DNA - DOP TO THE BOTTOM
VZIT ZA RUKU - TAKE HAND
MUM JAKO RUBA - MUM LIKE A FISH
HLEDET PRED SEBE - LOOK IN FRONT OF YOURSELF
VRBA ROSTE U VODY - THE WILLOW GROWS NEAR THE WATER
Z YUNO ZITA NEBUDE MOUKA - THERE WILL BE NO FLOUR FROM THIS LIFE

The diversity of languages ​​stems from the disunity of people. The less and less often they communicate with each other, the less commonality there is in their speech and the more differences between their languages.

The uniqueness and originality of each individual national language does not consist at all in the fact that it contains something that does not and cannot be in another language. This originality lies in the uniqueness of the combination of those features that, in principle, are inherent in other languages, just not to the same extent, in different proportions.

In Russian speech there are many words that a foreigner recognizes as his own. Looking at them through the prism of his linguistic perception, he will notice in these words something that is not noticeable to the Russian eye, he will see in them literal meaning, which in Russian this layer does not have. Let me give you a few examples.

Literal translation of some foreign words used in Russian speech

AKSAKAL ALMA MATER JOKE ANONYMOUS FULL FACE APATHY APOSTLE ISLAM KAMIKAZE KARAKURT PENCIL KARATE POSHPO NESSESSER PARLIAMENT PASSAGE PERPETUUM MOBILE PURSE HARNESS RABBI OVERTURE FINISH OUTLIGEL VANE BACKGROUND FUND FOLKLORE CHAMELEON TIME TROUBLE EUREKA EPITHET JANISSARIES FAIR

white beard (Turkic) nursing mother (Latin) unpublished (Greek) nameless (Greek) in the face (French) dispassion (Greek) messenger (Greek) humility (Arabic) wind of the gods (Japanese) black insect (Turkic) black stone (Turkic) empty hand (Japanese) hide the pot (French) necessary (French) talking shop (French) passage (French) continuously moving (lat.) carry coins (French) carry a sword (French) my teacher (Hebrew) opening (French) end (English) wing (German) wing (Dutch) base (French) base (French) folk wisdom(English) earth lion (Greek) need of the time (German) I found (Greek) application (Greek) new army (Turkish) annual market (German)

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29.10.2013

The question of creating a unified history textbook is literally in the air. Either the members of the commission for its development, at the suggestion of colleagues from Tatarstan, will propose to abandon the concept of “Tatar-Mongol yoke”, then Chechen historians will worry, criticizing the capital’s “Caucasian scientists”. Locally, a single history textbook has been hotly and long-discussed. One of the round tables will be devoted to this topic. “Lenta.ru” proposes to understand one of the most controversial and inconvenient questions, which, of course, goes beyond the scope of disputes about the textbook: how much Tatar, or more precisely, Turkic, influence has the Russian language undergone? In other words, are there many Turkic words in the Russian language and how did they appear?

To begin with, it is worth making a reservation about who these Tatars were. That's what they called the ancient mysterious tribe, apparently Mongol-speaking, existing in the second half of the first millennium AD. It was subsequently practically exterminated by the leader of another Mongol tribe, Temujin, aka Genghis Khan; the great commander took revenge on the Tatars for his relatives. Those Tatars who were not destroyed immediately, Genghis Khan placed in the vanguard of his army - in the most dangerous places. Thus, the tribe, having died, gave its name to both the suicide warriors and the Turkic army of Genghis Khan as a whole. These ancient Tatars have nothing in common ethnically with modern Tatars.

The linguistic term Turkism is quite broad. Firstly, it refers to the simplest and most common cases: borrowing Turkic words from Turkic languages. However, linguists also talk about Turkisms if a word from other languages ​​(Persian or Arabic, for example) came to ours through Turkic. Finally, if etymologically a Turkic word appeared in Russian through the head of another language, it can also be declared Turkic.

The history of Turkic borrowings into Russian is divided into three periods: before the Horde, during it and after. In the pre-Mongol period, a few words penetrated into Russian. It is convenient to evaluate their place in the lexical system using the example of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” In total, the main monument of ancient Russian literature, created in the late 1180s, contains about 45 Turkisms; Almost all of them belong to the Polovtsians, on whom Igor’s campaign is being discussed. In modern Russian, only rare ones are represented: these are the words cart, pearl, blockhead, bangs (erection last word to the Russian brow, apparently, erroneously). Among the bright pre-Mongol Turkisms, for example, is the word beady, meaning shades of gray: a beaded wolf is a wolf with gray-whitish summer fur after the spring molt. The name of the Kayala River comes from the Turkic “river overgrown with sedge” (according to another version, from the Turkic word meaning “rocky”).

It is important that Turkic borrowings are one of the ways to resolve the issue of the authenticity of the monument. Skeptics and conspiracy theorists claim that the “Lay” is a forgery and was composed in the 18th century based on Zadonshchina (late 14th - early 15th centuries), a legend about the victory of Dmitry Donskoy over the troops of Mamai. The similarity between the two monuments is undeniable, and it is obvious that the author of the later text started from the earlier one. So, skeptics suggest that the falsified legend about Igor’s campaign was based on the story about the Battle of Kulikovo, and not vice versa. However, if this were so, then the supposed author of the Lay would have to be able to distinguish the Turkic borrowings of the pre-Mongol period from those that entered the Russian language with the Horde and later: he would have had to throw out the later Turkisms and leave the earlier ones when remaking the Zadonshchina. Moreover, the falsifier would have to find even more ancient borrowings in ancient Russian manuscripts in order to pepper the “Word” with them: the two monuments have only seven common Turkisms, and in the legend about Igor’s campaign there are more than six times more of them. Thus, the forger needed to have linguistic data from the 19th-20th centuries, and the “Word” was found in late XVIII century.

Other striking pre-Mongol Turkisms include the words boyar, horse, gang. Russian hero is also not Russian at all: a word meaning epic hero, distinguished by intelligence and strength, came from the Turkic languages, where it means “brave, military leader, hero”; it is related to the Kyrgyz batyr. The appearance of “o” in the first syllable is explained here by the influence of the Russian word rich. Indeed, for example, in the Smolensk and Kursk regions the word bogatyr meant “rich man,” which is recorded in the regional dictionary; this also means the Belarusian hero.
And the Horde itself was called “horde” in Rus' even before the Horde: this word of Turkic origin was taken not from the Tatars, but most likely from the Polovtsians. It denotes a union of several nomadic tribes, in a figurative sense - a disorderly large crowd or even a gang. IN Old Russian word horde meant only “camp, nomadic camp”; the fact that the word did not have an associated second meaning of "army" indicates an early date of borrowing.

But truly many Turkisms appear in the Russian language precisely during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Many of them relate to the trade sphere, reflecting the opportunistic nature of Moscow’s relations with the khans. A typical example is the word money. Money was the name given to small silver coins - “scales”, which were minted in Moscow, Novgorod, Ryazan and other centers from the second half of the 14th century. It comes from a Turkic word meaning a silver coin of various values, including the ruble; The name of the Kazakh currency - tenge - is etymologically related to Russian money. The root of the word from which money originated, in a number of Turkic languages ​​(Tatar, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek) meant both squirrel and penny, reflecting the fact of using fur as a monetary unit.

Later, the money was finally assigned its Moscow meaning - one two-hundredth of a ruble, that is, half a kopeck. Meanwhile, the penny itself may well turn out to be borrowing. The name of the monetary unit is traditionally traced to the word spear, so the chronicles already say, for example, in the Sofia vremennik under 1535 it is written: “And under the Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich there was a banner on the money: the Grand Duke on a horse. And having a sword in his hand; and the great prince Ivan Vasilyevich set up a banner on money: the great prince is on a horse, and having a spear in his hand and from there he called it kopek money.” However, most likely, this is only folk etymology: in the word kopek the letter yat was written, which made its origin from a spear impossible; in addition, if this origin were correct, the coin would rather be called a kopeyko, kopjetso or kopeytse. Therefore, an eastern borrowing seems likely: Persian historical texts mention a kopek coin. Of the modern Turkic languages, this ancient name has been preserved in the Turkmen language (although some Turkmen linguists tend to see Russianism in it). Supporters of the Turkic etymology take it to the word meaning “dog”: coins could be called dogs either in honor of the animal depicted on them, or simply as a joke.

Before connecting money, which has already been discussed, with Tatar name coins, scientists discussed another - as it turned out, incorrect - Turkic etymology: from the word tamga. Now it means a family sign among the Abkhazians, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Ossetians, Maris and other peoples. In the original Mongolian it meant “brand, mark”; During the period of the Golden Horde, the word became widespread in the countries Central Asia, of Eastern Europe, the Near and Middle East, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, where, in addition to the previous ones, it acquired new meanings - “a document with the Khan’s seal”, “(monetary) tax”. And although money does not come from the word tamga, it undoubtedly comes from modern word customs: tamga signs were placed on goods subject to tax. Already in 1267, a customs officer was the name given to the collector of special taxes under the Tatar administration in Ancient Rus'; the verb tamzhit meant “to impose a duty.”

During the time of the Horde, the word karaul, which in Turkic languages ​​meant patrol, guard and came from the verb “to watch,” also came into Russian. In different Turkic languages, this word can mean not only a guard detachment or a post, but also, for example, a front sight on a gun. Obviously, the word san is also an honorary title borrowed from Turkic. In Turkic languages, its meaning was associated with the semantic field “number - counting - honor - dignity - fame”. After being borrowed during the Golden Horde period, it gave rise to a number of Russian words, for example, dignitary, posture. (However, there is an opinion that the dignity appeared in Russian in the pre-Mongol period.)

The very Russian word - and Russian object - kaftan ("ancient long-brimmed upper men's clothing, usually sewn from cloth"): it came either from Persian with Turkic mediation, or directly from Turkic. Borrowing occurred in the XIII-XV centuries, after the fall of Kyiv. Researchers believe that caftan is a compound word from two roots, meaning “bag” and “dress” respectively. Most likely, the word cockroach is also Turkic: its most convincing etymological interpretation is “spreading in all directions.” The Russian host, found in Afanasy Nikitin, is obviously the Persian khoja, which came through the Turkic languages.

Actually, “Walking the Three Seas” (1466-1474) should be considered the apotheosis of the penetration of Turkisms into Russian literature. The final part of the work - Afanasy Nikitin's prayer - is written in a mixture of Russian, Arabic and Turkic words. Afanasy used foreign language vocabulary for the most delicate matters: “And I am going to Rus', ketmyshtyr name, uruch tuttym. The month of March passed, and I fasted for three days a week, but I fasted for a month, I ate no meat and nothing fast, no food, but I ate bread and water twice a day, avratylya yatmadym.” It is translated as follows: “And I am going to Rus' (with the thought: my faith is lost, I fasted with the Besermen fast). The month of March passed, I began fasting with the Besermen on Sunday, fasted for a month, did not eat any meat, did not eat anything modest, did not take any food from the Besermen, but ate bread and water twice a day (I did not lie with a woman).”

In 1825, Pushkin had to defend the Russian language from blasphemy. Responding with an article to the preface to the French translation of Krylov’s fables, he wrote: “Mr. Lemonte is in vain to think that the rule of the Tatars has left rust in the Russian language. An alien language spreads not by sword and fire, but by its own abundance and superiority. What new concepts, requiring new words, could a nomadic tribe of barbarians, who had neither literature, nor trade, nor legislation, bring to us? Pushkin was mistaken in the most astonishing way: precisely the words associated with state structure(like the guard and the label) or the economy (like money or customs) came from the Mongol-Tatars in the first place. And the point, of course, is not in “abundance and superiority” - there are no “better” languages ​​- but in the policy of the Moscow princes, who preferred to build relations with the khans.

“Be that as it may, hardly fifty Tatar [= Turkic] words passed into the Russian language,” writes Pushkin. However, in fact, the Horde opened the gateway to peaceful post-Mongol Turkic borrowings, which poured in in the 16th-19th centuries under cultural influence The Ottoman Empire was an enlightened state, which the poet would not object to. Moscow had to actively maintain relations with the Turks after they conquered Crimea and initially began to oppress Russian merchants. From the Ottomans came to us the words eggplant and suitcase, Adam's apple and donkey, trousers and sheepskin coat, raisins and oil; the word arap entered the Russian language long before Peter the Great, but under Peter porcelain and pencil appeared.

The number of later borrowings from Turkish and Tatar languages ​​can be multiplied; Among them there are many completely unexpected ones. The word flaw only seems to come from the Russian verb to take away: in fact, it is a Persian word, borrowed through Turkish, with the meaning “damage, loss.” The simple word pelvis also comes from the Turks and Crimean Tatars: etymologically it is related to the German Tasse, French tasse, Italian tazza, which mean "cup". Holster comes from the Turkish word for "case". Dahl derives the word karapuz from the words short and belly, but this is obviously as incorrect as elevating it to the French crapoussin (“shorty”, “baby”). In fact, the word obviously goes back to the same word as the word watermelon, and was obtained through metaphorization: a toddler is someone round, like a watermelon.

Pushkin writes that language alone all the time “remained the inviolable property of our unfortunate fatherland”; this is true, but this tongue has been shaken enough. 150 years after Pushkin, another great poet— Dmitry Aleksandrovich Prigov — wrote in the poem “Kulikovo Field”:

But the Tatars are nicer,
And their names are more pleasant,
And their voices are more pleasant,
Yes, and the behavior is more pleasant,
Even though the Russians are neater,
But the Tatars are nicer,
So let the Tatars win,
From here I can see everything,
The Tatars, then, will win,
But we'll see tomorrow.

In the 20th century, the influx of Turkic words into the Russian language slowed down for the first time, and borrowings from Western European languages ​​pushed them into the background long before that - and without any yoke, peacefully. However, the question of who won, and at what cost, obviously still stands, since it is included in the number of controversial ones - and since the poet writes: “But by the way, we’ll see tomorrow.”

Kirill Golovastikov

Turkic borrowings (Turkisms) have a wide meaning in the Russian language. This term in linguistic science summarizes Russian words that came to us simultaneously from all Turkic languages ​​- either directly or indirectly (most often from Persian and Arabic).

And today in the Russian language there are hundreds of full-meaning words of Turkic origin. Thematically, they cover all areas of life. This is explained by the close contact of the Turkic peoples with Russian culture and way of life over several long historical periods.

Let's look at the main periods of borrowings from Turkic languages, consider distinctive features We will give specific examples of each of them.

Turkic words of the pre-Mongol period

The key layer of Turkisms in our language covers the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in the 13th-14th centuries. But there is a group of Turkisms of the 12th century - several words that deserve special attention. These are general concepts of everyday and cultural significance, some of them are noted as words of Bulgarian origin.

Bogatyr. The name of the original Russian, strong and wise hero of the epics of reality comes from the ancient Turkic baatur and the Danube-Bulgar batur. The meaning of the word is “brave,” “hero,” or “military leader.”

Horde. The word appeared in our vocabulary even before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar conquerors - from the Polovtsians (presumably). The original meaning of the word “horde” was an alliance of nomadic tribes or a gang/disorderly crowd.

Tent. A word that has spread in a number of Slavic languages ​​(including Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Polish, Slovenian). Initially, it is of Persian origin (catr - “barrier, tent”), and came to us through the Turkic languages.

Horse. Along with the same root words (horse breeder - horse thief, hinny - young stallion), it comes from ancient Turkic languages ​​(words lasa; in Crimean Tatar - alasa).

Turkisms of the Golden Horde era

The consequence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' was a logical acceleration of the growth of Turkic borrowings in the 13th-14th centuries.

A new array of words of Turkic origin covered the concepts:

• economic activity (money, profit, treasury, tamga/customs);
• state level (coachman, Cossack);
• military (saber, dagger, chieftain) meaning.

In addition, there were borrowings at the household level for the designation:

• drinks and products (watermelon, mash);
• household items (chest, glass);
• weather phenomena (fog, hurricane);
• items of clothing and footwear (kaftan, veil, sundress);
• jewelry (diamond, earrings), etc.

Let's take a closer look at a few examples.

Guard. The basis of the word was the Turkic verb “to look”. In the Turkic languages ​​themselves, “guard” had the meaning of “watch” or “guard,” but there were other equivalent concepts that were not typical for our language. An example is “front sight on a gun.”

Money. The word “money” in the Turkic languages ​​meant any coin made of silver - it migrated to us in the 14th century with a similar meaning. It is interesting to note that in a number of languages ​​(Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Kazakh), the root of this word has a second meaning - squirrel. The thing is that in ancient times, fur was often used by people as currency.

Master. The history of the word dates back to the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion. It originally appeared in the Persian language (“hoja” - lord), from where it migrated to the Turkic dialects.

Quiver. A striking example of direct borrowing in the military sphere is the Russian word “quiver”, which originates from the Tatar kolcan, kulcan.

Latest borrowings

After the Mongol-Tatars, the leading reason for the spread of Turkic words was the strong influence of the culture of the Ottoman Empire. That is why many borrowings from the 16th-19th centuries are of cultural and everyday origin (drum, heel, iron, trap, etc.).

Hypocrite. By this word we mean a hypocritical person, but in Turkish chadzy means “pilgrim”. It is believed that "bigot" also comes from Arabic.

Fuel oil. Originally an Arabic concept (where makhzulat means “waste”; fuel oil is waste generated during oil refining), which later came through the Turkic languages.

Dunce. Another word common in all Turkic languages. The Tatar word “bilmes” means “ignoramus” or “ignoramus,” and the Kyrgyz word “bilbes” means “fool.”

Attic. The word is taken from Turkish/Crimean Tatar and Karaite languages. In the first case, the word cardak meant “balcony”, in the second - “upper room”.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan

High school No. 12 named after F. Dosymova

Scientific work

Topic: “Turkisms in the Russian language”

Direction: Linguistics

Section: Russian language

Completed by: Eleusinova A.N.

Student of class 11A

Scientific supervisor: Zoya Tarikhovna Manapova

Russian language teacher

Atyrau-2017

1. Last name: Eleusinova

2. Name: Ayaulym

3. School: No. 12 named after F. Dosymova

4. Class: 10 "A"

Scientific adviser:

1. Last name: Manapova

2. Name: Zoya

3. Patronymic: Tarikhovna

4. Place of work: school No. 12 named after F. Dosymova

5. Profession: Russian language teacher

Head teacher: Kashaubay E.E.

Head of scientific work: Manapova Z.T.

Introduction

Chapter I. Borrowing as a condition for language development

§ 1 . Borrowings in the language: general concept and the role of borrowed words in speech

§ 2 . Turkisms: appearance in the language, signs, role

Chapter II. Turkisms in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Chapter III. Turkisms in the Russian language in the post-Mongol period.

Conclusion

Resources used

INTRODUCTION

Everyone knows that the Russian language is one of the most developed and rich languages ​​in the world, performing various functions. Language is not static; it constantly develops and changes. What is this connected with? N.G. Chernyshevsky wrote: “The composition of the vocabulary corresponds to the knowledge of the people, testifies to their everyday activities and way of life and partly about their relations with other peoples.”

Indeed, the language of each era contains the knowledge of the people in that era. Scientific knowledge, moral commandments, customs, relationships between people - everything is reflected in language. Besides, big role Borrowings play a role in the development of the Russian language, the appearance of which is associated with trade, cultural, and political ties that arise between different countries.

Borrowings from Turkic languages ​​form a significant layer of the vocabulary of the Russian language, and many Turkic borrowings are so firmly rooted in our language that they are mistaken for native Russians.

The history of Turkic borrowings into Russian is divided into three periods: before the Horde, during it and after. In the pre-Mongol period, a few words penetrated into Russian. It is convenient to evaluate their place in the lexical system using the example of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” In total, the main monument of ancient Russian literature, created in the late 1180s, contains about 45 Turkisms; Almost all of them belong to the Polovtsians, against whom there is a lot of talk about Igor’s campaign. Only a few of them are represented in modern Russian: these are words (cart, pearls).

Literary text as a reflection real world is a synthesis of linguistic units that build the “foundation” artistic image V literary work, the study of which is impossible without establishing the relationship of individual parts and their role within the whole. Regional literature as cultural heritage region requires comprehensive study, therefore, the monument “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was used as the object of study. In total, the monument contains 45 borrowings from Turkic languages.

Based on this, we determined target our work: to analyze the functioning of Turkisms in the Russian language using the example of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Also determine the time of penetration of Turkisms.

Chapter I. Borrowings in language - reproduction phonetic and morphologicalby means of one languagewords or phrases of another language. Borrowed words appear in the Russian language under the influence of both internal (linguistic) reasons.

External reasons include more or less close political, military, economic-industrial, scientific and cultural ties between peoples.

Internal reasons are the needs for the development of the lexical system, which are as follows:

eliminating the ambiguity of the original word by simplifying its semantic structure, for example: “import” and “export” instead of “import” and “export”;

clarification or detailing of the corresponding concepts of the language, for example: both liquid and thick jam used to be called jam, but now liquid jam with preserved pieces of fruit is calledjam;

replacing names expressed in a phrase with one word, for example: marksman -sniper, hotel for motor tourists - motel, short distance runner - sprinter.

Let's consider the types of borrowings:

Loan words– words that have completely entered the lexical system of the Russian language have acquired lexical meaning, grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language are used in different styles speeches sound in accordance with the phonetic system of the Russian language, are written in letters of the Russian alphabet (PR, file, tram, clown).

Exotic vocabularywhen writing letters of the Russian alphabet and mastering the grammatical properties of the Russian language, it reflects the peculiarities of the life of any people and is used in specific contexts when we're talking about about the uniqueness of his life, locality and ethnographic features. Exoticisms can turn into borrowed words if an object or idea is borrowed (sari, turban, changuri, bullfighter, castanets).

Foreign language inclusionsin written speech they are transmitted in the same spelling, which is characteristic of them in the transmitting language, and in oral speech they are transmitted in the same phonetic and morphological design in which they were in the transmitting language.

In oral speech Borrowings are easier to master, but are often subject to distortion and the influence of folk etymology. Books are closer to the original both in meaning and in sound appearance, but are more difficult to master the language, retaining some features that are alien to its phonetics and grammar.

Directions for development of borrowing:

phonetic – adaptation of the sound appearance of a borrowed word to the phonetic norms of the language;

grammatical – inclusion of a word in the grammatical system of a language;

lexical - inclusion of a word in the system of meanings.

According to the degree of development, borrowings vary from completely mastered (hut, horse) to barbarisms (reputation). Phonetics and grammar are more stable and more difficult to borrow, however, here too there are known cases of borrowing, for example, the sound [f] in the Russian language.

Borrowings are distinguished between direct and through the mediation of another language. The borrowing process intensifies in conditions of bilingualism.

By the nature and volume of borrowings in the Russian language, one can trace the paths historical development language, that is, the path of international travel, trade relations and scientific development and, as a consequence, the crossing of Russian vocabulary and phraseology with other languages. Observing the transition of words and phrases from any foreign language in Russian language helps to understand the history of the Russian language, like lit.erature and dialects.

§ 2. Turkisms: appearance in the language, characteristics, role.

The linguistic term “Turkism” is quite broad. Firstly, it refers to the simplest and most common cases: borrowing Turkic words from Turkic languages. However, linguists also talk about Turkisms if a word from other languages ​​(Persian or Arabic, for example) came to ours through Turkic. Finally, if an etymologically Turkic word appeared in Russian through the head of another language, it can also be declared Turkic. The history of Turkic borrowings into Russian is divided into three periods:before the Horde, during it and after.

Pre-Mongol period.

In the pre-Mongol period, a few words penetrated into Russian. It is convenient to evaluate their place in the lexical system using the example of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Also among the bright pre-Mongol Turkisms, for example, is the word beady, meaning shades of gray: a beady wolf is a wolf with gray-whitish summer fur after the spring molt. The name of the Kayala River comes from the Turkic “river overgrown with sedge” (according to another version, from the Turkic word meaning “rocky”).

Extant Turkisms:boyar, tent, hero, gang, pearls, kumiss, horse, hinny, horde.

Golden Horde period.

But really many Turkisms appear in the Russian language precisely during the period of the Golden Horde. Many of them relate to the trade sector. A typical example is the word money . It comes from a Turkic word meaning a silver coin of various values, including the ruble; name of the Kazakh currency - tenge - etymologically related to Russian money. Military vocabulary also actively functions in Russian speech. So, for example, during the time of the Horde the word came into Russian guard , which in Turkic languages ​​meant patrol, guard and came from the verb “to watch”. Other borrowings relate to areas such as construction(brick, tin, shack), decorations(earring, diamond, emerald),beverages(mash, buza) , vegetable garden(watermelon, rhubarb), fabrics (satin, calico, calico, braid), clothes and shoes(shoe, cap, veil, stocking, caftan).Some other borrowings from this period:(mound, scarlet, badger, busurman, brown, target). The very Russian word - and Russian object - kaftan (“ancient long-skirted outer clothing for men, usually made of cloth”) also has an eastern origin: it came either from Persian with Turkic mediation, or directly from Turkic. The borrowing took place in XIII-XV centuries, after the fall of Kyiv. Researchers believe that caftan is a compound word from two roots, meaning “bag” and “dress” respectively. Most likely, the word cockroach is also Turkic: its most convincing etymological interpretation is “spreading in all directions.” The Russian host, found in Afanasy Nikitin, is obviously the Persian khoja, which came through the Turkic languages.

Still from the film by Vasily Pronin and Khoja Abbas "Sailing across three seas"Actually, "Walking across three seas"and should be considered the apotheosis of the penetration of Turkisms into Russian literature. The final part of the work - Afanasy Nikitin's prayer - is written in a mixture of Russian and Turkic words. Afanasy used foreign language vocabulary for the most delicate matters:“And I’m going to Rus', ketmyshtyr name, uruch tuttym. The month of March passed, and I fasted for three days a week, but I fasted for a month, I ate no meat and nothing fast, no food, but I ate bread and water twice a day, avratylya yatmadym.”It translates like this:“And I’m going to Rus' (with the thought: my faith is lost, I fasted with the Besermen fast). The month of March passed, I began fasting with the Besermen on Sunday, fasted for a month, did not eat any meat, did not eat anything modest, did not take any Besermen food, but ate bread and water twice a day (I did not lie with a woman). There are even inserts that coincide with prayers from: “Huvo mogu go, la lasailla guiya alimul gyaibi va shagaditi. Fuck Rahman Rahim, fuck I can lie.» - « He is God, besides whom there is no God, who knows everything secret and obvious. He is merciful, merciful. He has no one like him.", which roughly corresponds to verse 22 of sura 59: "He is Allah, there is no god but Him, Knower of the hidden and the contemplated. He is merciful, merciful!»

XVI-XIX centuries.

Borrowings from this time are especially numerous, which is explained by the enormous cultural influence of the Ottoman Empire. Analyzing the affiliation of Turkisms, we noticed that they mainly predominateTurkic nouns (jumble, shackles, suitcase, mess, pencils, etc.) This is explained by the fact that Turkic borrowings perform primarily a nominative function, i.e. name objects or phenomena that do not have alternative names in Russian. The dominant affiliation of borrowed words from Turkic languages ​​to nouns influenced the specificity of the word-formation nest with the original basis - Turkism. This specificity lies in the fact that the central lexeme that forms the word-formation nest is the noun. This feature distinguishes these nests from the general language system, wherethe initial basis of a word-formation nest can be words of all parts of speech. For example: barberry-barberry; mosque-mosque; bazaar-bazaarishko-bazaar, etc.

16th century: drum, suitcase, noodles, locusts, fringe, sheepskin coat.

17th century: bashlyk, carp, pants, doodles, booth, iron, fog.

18th century: pencil, pilaf, carcass, balyk, kucherma, flaw.

19th century: persimmon, ottoman, dunce, lula-kebab.

IN XX century, the influx of Turkic words into the Russian language slowed down for the first time; and borrowings from Western European languages ​​pushed them into the background long before that - and without any yoke, peacefully.

So, contacts with other languages ​​played a big role as sources of replenishment of the lexical composition of the Russian language. Contacts with the Turkos were especially long and intense- pagan peoples who were distinguished by their versatility: trade, military, diplomatic and other relations. These contacts were reflected in the languagee and, undoubtedly, enriched him.Here it should be noted not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes in the language, when various semantic connections and relationships with the Russian lexical environment are established,there is a restructuring of synonymous series, the semantics of Russian words interacting with Turkic ones changes (for example, bazaar - bargaining ).

In this regard, the penetration of Turkisms into the Russian language over a long period of time, reaching maximum activity by the 17th century, is of particular interest.

The study of Turkisms gives new material to interpret relationshipsbetween units of the lexical-semantic system of language,

for example, word relationships,forming synonymous, word-forming and other groups of words.

The role of Turkisms in themselves in enriching the synonymous means of the language is small. There is a small number of synonymous series formed with the help of Turkisms (for example,horse - horse - nag, herd - herd, interpreter - translator, income - bashish, etc.).

The evolution of such series is of undoubted interest, since they reveal all possible ways of forming synonymous means of language:

the emergence of a particular word into the dominant position of the dominant;

consolidation in a synonym of a feature by which this word is contrasted with other members of the series;

displacement of one or another member of the ranks as a result of long-term competitive struggle;

In parallel with the change in the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language, a process of evolution is taking place in the Turkisms themselves as a result of the fact that they are spreading in various fields functioningI (life, craft, trade) or, being exposed to the original languageyka, develop metaphoricaltransfers.

Many Turkic words, borrowed by the Russian language in the distant past, are so assimilated by them that their origin is discovered only with the help of etymological analysis. What are the signs of Turkisms?

A striking feature of Turkic words is synharmonism, vowel harmony. V. A. Bogoroditsky writes about Turkic synharmonism: “The reader can form some idea about the essence of the phenomenon:lasso, hood, buzuk, kumis, beshmet, tyutyun, biryuk. From these examples we see that the root a in a word can be followed by the vowels a or ы; after o we meet y, and after the root y - both y and s; behind the roote is followed by the same vowel, and the vowel y(yu)-u, etc.”

Synharmonism - a phenomenon consisting in the fact that in a word behind the root vowel there can be vowels of only one row: front or back, for example: fig, pouch, flail, sultana, but boar, kvardak, bashlyk, shack, sealing wax, kumis, fog, etc. This feature of Turkisms should be taken into account when carrying out orthographic work with these words, but the last vowel will be the reference one, since the stress in Turkic words falls on the last syllable: boar, sealing wax, hearth, fig.

For some words of the Turkic proiconvergences are characterized by terminal-lykAnd -cha: , ; ,

Most spelling Turkisms are covered the following rules:

1. If a is stressed, then in the syllable before the stressed a or y;head, shoe, haydamak, boar, musk deer, mess, Cossack, cauldron, treasury, border, trap, pencil, hag, Maidan, papakha, carp, saiga, adobe, barn, cockroach, robe, halva, shepherd, hut, scimitar, dried apricots, pike perch, sultan, chubary, etc.

2. If y is stressed, then in the syllable before the stressed a or y:aul, gyaur, guard, kayuk, shack, saxaul, herd, chaus, bunchuk, wineskin, fat tail, sealing wax, chest, sheepskin coat, iron.

3. If the stress is e or i, then in the syllable before the stressed i:figs, kibitka, dogwood, pouch, flail, sultanas, brick.

4. If the stress is s, then in the syllable before the stress is a:bashlyk, bride price, reed.

5. With o unstressed in the first syllable they write:blockhead, nomad, horde, retaliation, flock, hearth, goods.

6. With e unstressed they write: bergamot, beshmet, kendyr, braid, skullcap, earring.

Elements of etymological analysis in connection with spelling are also possible:pencil – kara – black;

Chapter II. This Detective story started in 1975. Main characters: Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev - academician, Slavist, former prisoner of the Solovetsky camps and Olzhas Omarovich Suleimenov - Kazakh poet writing in Russian.He became interested in this topic while a student at the Literary Institute, and published works on the “Word” since 1962. His topic thesis in historical grammar - “The category of animation and inanimateness in the “Tale of Bygone Years””, and the topic of his PhD thesis in graduate school already at the Department of Russian Philology of Kazakh State University (1963-1966) - “Turkisms in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign””. The general line of Suleimenov’s work was aimed at identifying in the “Word” vast layers of Turkic vocabulary and entire Turkic phrases, which were later distorted during rewriting, and received the most complete expression in the book “Az and Ya. The Book of a Well-Intentioned Reader” (1975), which became very famous. which also offers its own concept of the historical context of the “Tale”, a series of events, etc.

Olzhas Suleimenov: “I stated for the first time that “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was written for a bilingual reader by a bilingual author. Let's say a Russian who also spoke Turkic languages. This means that bilingualism existed in Rus' at that time. I tried to prove this based on data from many ancient Russian sources. In Soviet historical science, it was believed that only a few Turkic words, such as lasso or kumis, entered the Russian language during the Polovtsian and Tatar-Mongol invasions. I was talking about INVISIBLE Turkisms, which have always been considered Russian. This is what shocked the academics. Oddly enough, I turned out to be the first bilingual reader"Tales about Igor's Campaign."

Prince Vsevolod has a strange nickname in the Lay - " buitur ". Translated as " wild ox ", " buffalo ". In Turkic" buoy-ture " Means "tall gentleman", i.e. " high-born ". Further evolution of this title:batur, bootur, bogatur, hero. The translators turned the high-born Vsevolod into wild beef!

You probably remember Svyatoslav’s strange dream, in which it was generally unclear what was happening, and, in particular, "The great woman's filthy tulips pour into my bosom and make me miserable". Translated: "showered me with large pearls from empty quivers of filthy talk and pampered me". But " quivers "It will be in Old Russian" TULI ", A " TULY "means in Turkic" widows ". Therefore, the correct translation is: "skinny widows of filthy pagans pour large pearls onto my chest and caress me". (By the way, an interesting fact: the word "pearl" came to us from China through the Kipchaks: "yenchu" - "zhenchug" - "pearl"). Suleimenov discovers that the incomprehensible "wild kisan" in Turkic means "iron fetters" , and "bosuvi lies" is "bosuvrmane", i.e. "basurmane"! In Svyatoslav's dream, Olzhas finds an entire PHRASE in the Turkic language. An amazing fact is revealed: Svyatoslav dreams that he is being buried in Turkic funeral rite! The ritual is reproduced with precision down to detail.

Chapter III. Modern Russian and Old Russian languages ​​are different in the full sense of the word. Today, to a Russian person, the Old Russian language is as incomprehensible (if understandable at all) as, for example, Polish. The Old Russian language developed on the basis of Old Church Slavonic, while the modern one began to take shape around the era of the Horde yoke, but was finally formed only in the 19th century. The language of the time of Ivan the Terrible is more understandable to modern Russian-speaking people than the language of, say, the time of Yaroslav the Wise ( Kievan Rus), but is still considered Old Russian. The history of the emergence of words is such that the modern Russian language, in addition to a large number of other lexical and grammatical differences, is characterized by many borrowings from the languages ​​of the Turkic peoples - Turkisms. They appeared at a time when Rus' was in vassal dependence on the Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde) - a strong and culturally highly developed state at that time, inhabited mainly by Turkic peoples. Today Russia is inhabited by far more than just the Russian people. In the north of the country large quantities Finno-Ugric (Karelians, Komi, Udmurts) and Samoyedic (Nenets, Ngasans) peoples live; in the center of the European part there are also many Finno-Ugric people (Mari, Mordovians); in the south - the peoples of the North Caucasus language family(Kabardians, Chechens, peoples of Dagestan); in the Volga region, in the Urals and in part of Siberia - the same Turks (Tatars, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Altaians, Tuvans, Yakuts); V Eastern Siberia Evenki live, speaking the language of the Tungus-Manchu (like the Japanese) group. But almost all representatives of these peoples speak Russian and actively use it in interethnic communication, and also insert Russian words into their native speech when it is more convenient to express something. The Russians in the Golden Horde were also not titular people and spoke Turkic when they went to the Horde on some business. Naturally, it was necessary to communicate in Tatar with tribute collectors or Khan’s envoys who arrived in Russian lands. Little by little, all layers of the Russian population had to master the language of the Horde. When communicating with each other in Russian, people often inserted a Turkic word into their speech for the sake of eloquence. Gradually, many Horde borrowings accumulated in the Russian language, just as today there are many Russian borrowings in the languages ​​of all the peoples inhabiting Russia. Some of the Turkisms have changed little, some were “adjusted” to Russian pronunciation for convenience, but over the centuries they have become firmly entrenched in the language, especially denoting those objects and concepts that came to Rus' from the Horde. For example, "pencil". "Kara tash – “black stone”", in the Horde they called graphite, used for writing. Having come from the Horde to Rus', it retained its Turkic name, although slightly modified for ease of pronunciation. Or the name of the Horde postal employees “yamchy” from “yam - postal point” passed to Rus', where there was no post before the Horde, under the word “coachman”. The nomadic Turkic peoples who inhabited the Horde wore pointed hats. A hat in the languages ​​of various Turkic peoples is called a “cap”. In Rus', they also wore some types of headdresses with a pointed top, but for those, the Russian language has long had its own names. But in Rus', a pointed headdress of an indeterminate cut, without having their own common name for them, people habitually began to call “cap” in Tatar.

The study of various thematic layers of vocabulary, including the names of mammals, is one of the most important tasks of modern linguistics. Zoological vocabulary, which is one of the most interesting layers of the vocabulary of the language, includes such lexical and semantic groups as “mammals”, “birds”, “insects”, “fish”, “reptiles”, “amphibians”, etc. ., which are distinguished by their antiquity and richness, diversity and originality of the lexical units included in their composition. For example, in the “Animal Husbandry” section of the book “General Vocabulary” material culture peoples of the Middle Volga region" the following names of domestic animals are subject to etymological analysis: (shoe ‘heifer, one-year-old calf, two-year-old calf’; dugyz ‘pig’; saryk, saulyk ‘sheep’; tana ‘heifer, young cow that has not yet calved’; chuchka ‘pig’; alasha, lasha ‘gelding’etc.) In I. Giganov’s dictionary “Russian-Tatar Dictionary” the 60 most common names of mammals are recorded:gyuz 'bull', yaban dnnzy 'boar, wild boar', at 'horse', syir, sygyr 'cow', chichkan 'mouse', simyalak 'dog', katyr, katsyr 'horse', lak 'kid', an 'beast ', antsak 'animal', kadyrga 'whale', ak kiik 'wild goat', yargak'tn 'kozhan', mishyak 'cat'.Some common Altaic and common Turkic zoonyms are found in Slavic and Finno-Ugric languages. Researchers explain the semantic development of these names in different ways, but often Electronic scientific and educational journal of the Voronezh State Pedagogical University “Faces of Knowledge”. associated with Turkic names. It is also suggested that for certain animal names, such as boryndyk ‘chipmunk’, alasha ‘gelding’, leopard ‘leopard’, or ‘goat’, Turkic languages ​​are probably not the source. The name kәzhe in the Tatar language is used to designate a domestic goat. Along with the literary name in dialects Tatar language words such as kz~kg~gә~ichke are marked. The name kә, combined with other words, forms stable phrases in the Tatar language: kәҗәtәkәse 'goat', kәtie (bәrne) 'kid', kәsakaly bot.'goatbeard', kәgle (chәchge) bot.'ikotnik', kәgәmbse bot .'white tar', kәbilety 'wolf ticket', like kaldyr 'leave as a goat' (when playing dominoes, cards). The word Dungyz in the Tatar language is used in the meaning of ‘domestic pig’, and the word wild boar~boar~dungyzy - in the meaning of ‘wild pig’. These names are also widespread in modern Turkic languages, in almost all of which boar means ‘wild pig’: Tat., Bashk., Nog., Kaz., Yak., Chuv. wild boar, kirg. Kaman, Uzbek kobon, godfather Kaban, Uyg. Kavan, az. Gaban. The word havan, meaning ‘domestic pig’, is known only in the Tuvan language. Judging by the evidence of written monuments and the testimony of living languages ​​and dialects, the oldest meaning is wild pig. The word wild boar is used in the Russian language, as well as in Ukrainian, Belarusian and Polish, meaning ‘wild pig’. Linguistic facts indicate that the word boar was borrowed from the Turkic languages ​​by the Russian language, in which it gradually replaced the Old Slavic word boar. Russian language dictionaries explain the meaning of the word boar, referring to the borrowing from the Turkic languages ​​boar: “boar - same as wild boar" The wide distribution of the figurative meaning of the word boar in the Russian language allowed D.S. Setarov to express the idea that “the word boar has firmly entered the lexical system of the Russian language.”

Conclusion. The history of the development of Russian-Turkic contacts is very rich and varied. The study of the processes of mastering Turkic vocabulary showed that Turkic words are actively used in the Russian language. These words can be found both in colloquial speech and in fiction. When describing Turkisms in the Russian language, it is not enough to be limited to a certain chronological framework.

A comprehensive study of borrowed vocabulary as part of the Russian dictionary is an urgent task of modern linguistics. According to linguists, Russian lexicology is far from indifferent to questions related to finding out what the proportion of genetically different foreign words of one or another layer of Russian vocabulary is, what is the history of their functioning and modern status, what is the specificity of borrowings from various languages ​​in terms of interaction with original vocabulary."

Turkic borrowings occupy a prominent place in the vocabulary of the Russian language. This layer of Russian vocabulary, as noted in many studies, has not been studied enough. This especially applies to Turkic lexical elements recorded in linguistic and graphic sources.

This paper presents a study of Turkic units noted in nine large academic dictionaries XVIII - XX centuries .

As a result of the analysis carried out in the composition explanatory dictionaries More than 800 Turkic borrowings were identified in the Russian language. Some of them (about 300 units) are recorded in all analyzed sources, the remaining Turkisms are presented only in some of them.

A number of Turkic borrowings (and their meanings) included in linguistic and graphic sources more than early period, are not in the dictionaries published at the end XX century.

Regarding the problem of original and borrowed vocabulary, it should be noted that among the terms we studied, some can be classified as borrowings, but in the vast majority of cases these terms are originally Turkic.

The results of the lexico-thematic and lexico-semantic study of the borrowed Turkic native vocabulary of the Russian language allow us to assert that Turkisms were mastered by the Russian language starting from the 11th century. AD The morphological, semantic and phonetic features of the borrowed Turkic vocabulary of the Russian language are clearly revealed in the material of nominal and verbal word formation.

Speaking about the main problems of historical lexicology, F.P. Filin noted: “We must know the basic patterns, the ways of development of vocabulary from its beginning to current state. Moreover, we must know the reasons for the addition of each word, the time of its origin, the change in its meanings, their connections with the meanings of other words."

As is known, there is not a single language in modern world, whose development would occur only at the expense of its own resources. “The contact of languages ​​is a historical necessity, and this contact inevitably entails their interpenetration,” the French linguist rightly notes J.Vandries .

Resources used:

1. Akhmanova O. S. Essays on general and Russian lexicology

2. Aleksandrova Z. E. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language: practical work. Directory

3. Aliev F.F. Essays on the vocabulary of the language of the Turks of Kazakhstan.

5. Dictionary of modern Russian literary language

6. Asfandiyarov I.U. Eastern vocabulary in Russian

7. Ayupova. From the history of the study of Turkic borrowings in the Russian language

8. Bobokhodzhaev A.B. Semantic features of Turkisms in the Russian language / A.B. Bobokhodzhaev // Questions of lexical and phraseological semantics.

9. Galiullin K.P. Turkisms in the new etymological dictionary of the Russian language

10. Galiullin K.P. Turkic lexical elements in etymological dictionaries of the Russian language: (Turkological and historical-chronological parts of dictionary entries)

Borrowed vocabulary in Russian

Words of non-original origin are called borrowed. Borrowings appear both as a result of direct territorial contacts and as a result of the exchange of cultural information, when, along with new objects and concepts, native speakers receive words denoting them. Borrowings are used not only to name new realities, but also to rename old ones.

The following borrowings in the Russian language are distinguished:

• from Slavic languages, in particular from the Old Church Slavonic language (see in detail:);
• from non-Slavic languages ​​(Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, Turkic, German, French, English and other borrowings).

Borrowed words can be distinguished from native Russian words by a number of characteristics.

A. Phonetic features:

1. The presence of the initial letter “a”: lampshade, April, scarlet, army, pharmacy. Russian words with the initial “a”, with the exception of words formed on the basis of borrowings, are rare. These are mainly interjections, onomatopoeias and words formed on their basis: yeah, ah, ah, ah, gasp, ah, echo etc.

2. The presence of the letter “e” in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton. In native Russian words, the letter “e” is found in words of an interjection and pronominal nature - hey, eh, this one, that's why, as well as in words formed in the Russian language on the basis of borrowings ( nth, ensky, SR).

3. The presence of the letter “f” in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February. The exceptions are interjections, onomatopoeia - ugh, ugh, fi, as well as the word owl.

4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. The presence of combinations of consonants “kd”, “kz”, “gb”, “kg” in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations “ge”, “ke”, “he” in the root: legend, sneakers, trachea. In Russian words, such combinations usually occur at the junction of the stem and ending: on the road, to my daughter-in-law, in the sand.

7. Availability of combination "bu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath. In native Russian words, double consonants occur only at the junction of morphemes.

9. Pronunciation of a hard consonant sound before the vowel [e] (letter “e”): model[de], test [te].

10. The initial “e” distinguishes mainly Greek and Latinisms: e pokha, e ra, e tika, e examen, e execution, e effect, e tazh.

B. Morphological characteristics:

1. Indeclinability of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.

2. Morphological lack of expression of number and gender of nouns: coat, taxi.

B. Word-formation features:

1. Foreign language prefixes: inter shaft, de duction, in individualism, re gress, archi mandrit, counter admiral, anti Christ.

2. Foreign language suffixes: dean at, stud ent, technician mind, editor torus, literary ur ah, proletarians at, popul change, social ist, controversy edit etc.

3. Presence of some type roots aqua-, marine-, geo-, graphic- etc.: aquarium, marine painter, surveyor.

In addition to “international” features, there are also features that help determine which language the word was borrowed from.

1. TO Greek borrowings ( Greekisms) include, for example:

• words from the field of religion: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, metropolitan, choir, lamp, icon, archpriest, sexton;
• scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar;
• everyday terms: tub, bathhouse, lantern, bed, notebook,certificate, sail, ribbon;
• names of plants and animals: cypress, cedar, beetroot, crocodile;
• proper names: Georgy, Elena, Sophia;
• terms from art and science: trochee, anapest, comedy, mantle, verse, idea, logic, physics, analogy.

Features of borrowings from this group:

• sound f (philosophy, lantern);
• initial uh (ethics, epigraph);
• combinations ps, ks (vocabulary, x);
• roots auto-, -logos, photo-, aero-, anthropo-, philo- and etc.;
• consoles a-, anti-, pan- and etc.

2. Borrowings from Latin language(Latinisms):

• words related to learning: school, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, student, audience, professor, class;
• political and philosophical terms: evolution,dictatorship, constitution, corporation, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition;
• scientific concepts: tangent, sine, herbarium, radius, proportion,meridian, maximum, minimum;
• words related to art: literature, arena, octave, circus;
• month names: January, July, August;
• administrative names: republic, chancellery, deputy;
• proper names: Julia, Marina, Victor, Roman.

3. Among Turkic borrowings ( Turkisms) most words from the Tatar language, which is explained by historical conditions (long-term Tatar-Mongol yoke):

• words from military, commercial and everyday speech: caravan, holster, mound, quiver, astrakhan fur, flail, treasury, money, altyn, bazaar, carpet, raisins, watermelon, basin, iron, hearth, epancha, trousers, sash, sheepskin coat, arshin, groceries, noodles, stocking, shoe, chest, robe, fog, mess, feather grass, jerboa, pearls, idol, palace, beads;
• almost all names of horse breeds and colors: argamak(a breed of tall Turkmen horses), roan, dun, bay, karak, brown, brown.

A sign of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony ( synharmonism) - the natural use in one word of vowels of only one row: back [a], [y] or front [e], [i]: ata man, kara van, kara anda sh, bashma k, a rkan, sundu k, sara fan, bar raba n, kabluk, kusha k, u lu s, me what, bi gray.

4. Scandinavian There are relatively few borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian) in the Russian language. Words of trade vocabulary, maritime terms, everyday words, and also:

• proper names Igor, Oleg, Rurik;
• individual words like herring, chest, pood, hook, anchor, sneak, pleat, whip, mast;
• names of natural phenomena: blizzard;
• geographical names: Volga.

5. TO German borrowings ( Germanisms) relate:

• military terms: attack, uniform, officer, corporal, camp, headquarters;
  
• names of household items, clothing: decanter, mattress, hat, tie, boots;
  
• trade terms: accountant, price list;
• names of plants and animals: spinach, onions, potatoes,poodle;
• vocabulary from the field of art: easel, dance,bandmaster;
  
• instrument names: jigsaw, jack,workbench, chisel, jointer.

Features of Germanisms:

• combinations th, pc, xt, sp, ft: mail, fine, watch, sprats, landscape;
• initial ts: workshop, zinc;
• compound words without a connecting vowel: sandwich, leitmotif, grandmaster.
  

6. Dutch are some nautical terms borrowed in the era of Peter I: buer, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet,cruiser and etc.

7. From English language ( Anglicisms) included, for example:

• some nautical terms: midshipman, bot, brig, schooner, yacht;
• words related to development public life, technology, sports, etc.: boycott, leader, rally; tunnel, trolleybus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish line; steak, cake, pudding;
• English words became especially widespread ( often in the American version) in the 90s of the XX century. in connection with economic, social and political transformations in Russian society. Borrowings from the end of the 20th century. touched on different areas of life:

technical ( computer, display, file, byte),
sports ( bobsleigh, overtime, fighter),
financial and commercial ( barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing),
arts ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller),

Phonetic features of Anglicisms:

• combinations tch, j: match, jazz;
• combinations va, ve, ve: Whatman paper, whiskey, corduroy;
• final -ing, -men, -er: briefing, businessman, timer.

8. TO French borrowings ( Gallicisms) relate:

• terminology of a socio-political nature: bourgeois, regime, parliament;
• words from the field of art: conductor, poster,actor, play, director,ballet;
• military vocabulary: artillery, battalion, garrison, cannonade, gun;
• names of food products, clothing, jewelry, furnishings: jelly, blouse, bracelet, sconce, boudoir, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights, broth, marmalade, cutlet, toilet.

Phonetic features of Gallicisms:

• stress on the last syllable: marmalade, pavilion;
• final -o, -i, -e in unchangeable words: puree, manto;
• combination wow: veil, exploitation;
• combinations byu, ryu, vu, nu, fu:dressing table, music stand, engraving;
• combinations he, an, en, am: control, intermission;
• final -er, -azh, -ans, -ant: landscape, director, renaissance, debutant.

9. From Italian borrowings are highlighted:

• musical terminology: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, series, slapstick, sonata, carnival, cavatina;
• some everyday words: vermicelli, pasta(came through French), gondola;
• vocabulary of financial relations: credit, debit, currency.

10. A small number of words came from Spanish language (vocabulary related to art): serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato and etc.

11. Few borrowings are from Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm and other languages.

Information about the origin of words can be obtained from dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

Additionally:

• Appendix “Borrown words in Russian” on the website wiktionary.org (lists for each language)

Sources:

• Section “Phonetic and morphological features of borrowed words” in the manual by Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. "Modern Russian language"
• Section “Characteristics of borrowed words"in the manual" Philology and linguistics. Fundamentals of the Science of Language» on the website lingvotech.com