Hagiography. The artistic concept and meaning of the “story of the life of Alexander Nevsky” How the story of the life of the second version usually ended
Composition
Name the distinctive features of the genre of hagiography. Who was the hero of the life? What was the goal of the creators of the hagiographic genre?
The genre of hagiography arose and developed in Byzantium, and in Ancient Russia it appeared as a translation. Based on borrowed texts, original ancient Russian hagiographic literature emerged in the 11th century. Lives (the word life in Church Slavonic means “life”) were works telling about saints - statesmen and religious figures, whose lives and actions were regarded as exemplary. The creators of the hagiographic genre were guided by the Holy Scripture, the images of which, and above all the image of Jesus Christ, were ideal. The author of the life created the image of the saint according to certain rules - the canon, therefore the creator of the life was concerned not so much with real qualities as with the eternal, common, exemplary for many saints. Not the individuality of a person, but his holiness, connection with God, chosenness - this is what they tried to show in life. Narrating about a real historical person, the author of the life depicted not the life of a specific person in all its details and details, but a certain generalized embodiment of holiness. From the life of the saint, those facts were taken that corresponded to the ideas about the ideal hero. The story about his life was freed from everything everyday, concrete, and random. All this was due to the fact that hagiographic literature sought to have an instructive effect on the reader.
What can you say about the composition of the life as a work of art?
The lives had the following structure: an introduction, which explained the reasons that prompted the author to begin the story; then followed the main part - a story about the life of the saint, his death and posthumous miracles; The life ended with praise to the saint.
Find in the text a portrait description of Alexander Nevsky. What technique does the author of the life use when characterizing the hero? What heroes is Alexander Nevsky compared to? What do you know about them? Why did the author choose these characters for comparison?
The author describes the prince as follows: “And he was handsome like no one else, and his voice was like a trumpet among the people, his face was like the face of Joseph, whom the Egyptian king appointed as the second king in Egypt, and his strength was part of the strength of Samson, and God gave him the wisdom of Solomon, and his courage was like that of the Roman king Vespasian, who conquered the entire land of Judea.”
When characterizing the hero, the author resorts not to description, but to the comparative method: his image is created using numerous comparisons. Alexander Nevsky is compared with various biblical heroes of the Old Testament - rulers who were the embodiment of the best human qualities - beauty, wisdom, strength, courage. Joseph is the beloved son of Jacob and Rachel, Samson is a hero who possessed enormous physical strength hidden in his long hair. Solomon is the king of the Israeli-Jewish state, who ruled in 965-928 BC. e. According to biblical tradition, when God appeared to Solomon and promised to fulfill his request, Solomon asked not for wealth and fame, but for wisdom. God liked his request, and he endowed Solomon with wisdom and even the ability to understand the language of birds and animals, and moreover, with wealth. Solomon became famous for his fair judgment and wise sayings. Titus Flavius Vespasian (9-79) - Roman commander who suppressed the uprising in Judea, emperor, famous for his military victories.
These rulers were exemplary, and by comparing the prince with them, the author emphasizes his peculiarity, exclusivity, and ideality.
What episodes of life cause an emotional upsurge in the reader? Why? What artistic techniques contribute to such a strong impression?
The episode about the appearance of Saints Boris and Gleb, without a doubt, has a strong impact on the reader, just like the description of a posthumous miracle. The author of the life realizes his goal - to convey to the reader or listener the symbols of the Orthodox faith and evoke a feeling of delight and emotional uplift.
In a vision on the eve of the battle with the Romans, Prince Alexander sees the holy great martyrs Boris and Gleb, sailing in a boat. Boris promises Alexander help and support. According to history, they were treacherously killed on the orders of their brother Svyatopolk the Accursed, who fought for the Kiev throne, and after death they were canonized and recognized as saints. The vision can be interpreted as God's blessing to the prince for a holy cause - the defense of the fatherland.
The life describes a posthumous miracle: when the body of Alexander Nevsky was laid in the tomb, “Sebastian the Economist and Cyril the Metropolitan wanted to unclench his hand in order to enclose a spiritual letter.” Alexander raised his hand and accepted the letter from the hands of the metropolitan, who was overcome by confusion. Thus God glorified his saint.
The description of the valor of Prince Alexander and his squad also does not leave readers indifferent. The depth of perception is facilitated by the artistic techniques used by the author.
Epithets: loud noise, red clothes, countless numbers, godless Germans, warriors, brave, strong, steadfast, great slaughter.
Comparisons: the rowers sat as if covered in darkness.
Introduction
2 The history of writing the Life
1 History lesson
2 Literature lesson
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
The relevance of this study is determined by the fact that until the 16th century, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” was a kind of standard for depicting Russian princes when describing their military exploits. This work is remarkable in that it was written by a contemporary of the events, and therefore is of great importance for understanding how the personality of Alexander Nevsky was assessed in those distant times, and what was the significance of the events in which he was a participant.
The purpose of the course research is to reveal the artistic intent and significance of “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”, its influence on subsequent Russian literature in Russia. To do this, the following research tasks should be set:
study the historical circumstances of writing “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”;
determine the specifics and features of the genre “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”;
The Life of Alexander is not a biography, but a description of the most significant events that recreate the heroic image of a warrior prince, a valiant commander and a wise politician. At the same time, the Life contains a lot of canonical, traditional for this genre, since the idea of the sacredness of princely power is conveyed. The main idea of the Life: “God is not in power, but in truth.”
The prince and his warriors are similar in every way: the author of the Life includes in the description of the Battle of the Neva the story of the brave men who fought “without fear in their hearts.” Scientists believe that this reflected the oral tradition of the Battle of the Neva in order to convey the greatness of spirit and the beauty of courage. Alexander's warriors are compared in their courage and stamina with the warriors of King David, their hearts are like the hearts of lions, they are filled with the spirit of war and are ready to lay down their heads for the prince.
The subject of the research is the patterns of artistic-historical narration about the events of the 12th-13th centuries.
The object of the study is the meaning and significance of such a literary source as “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
In our research, we proceeded from the fact that, according to the testimony of famous historians, Alexander’s patriotism determined the principles of the structure of Rus' for several centuries. The traditions laid down by the prince, based on national and religious tolerance, have attracted peoples living in neighboring territories to Russia until our time.
To this day, the name of Alexander Nevsky is a symbol of unity, part of a common national idea.
Chapter 1. Artistic concept and history of creation of “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”
1 Historical period of the reign of Alexander Nevsky
In order to imagine in detail the historical place of the reign of Alexander Nevsky, one should pay attention to how the military-political, historical and religious situation developed at the time of the beginning of his reign. - XIII century - a period of feudal fragmentation. Rus' was overwhelmed by civil strife. Each principality tried to exist in its own way. This is based on the following reasons. On the one hand, the formation of a subsistence economy, which ensured independent economic existence. On the other hand, political isolation, based on the creation of its own apparatus of violence - the squad. These are objective reasons for fragmentation.
Simultaneously with the isolation of cities, the number of the princely class continuously grew. The pace of development and formation of cities could not keep up with kind of like that population explosion in the camp of the governor. The rulers lacked the vast expanse of the Russian land, whose borders could not be expanded, since the entire course of events indicated that only their narrowing could be expected. And under these conditions, the law of natural selection. Brother went against brother. Everything was used: murder, entering into family ties with authoritative foreign families, incest, intrigue, flirting and simultaneous cruelty with the townspeople. The historical conditions of the period in which the princes were placed pushed them to take certain actions. The situation was complicated by the specifics of the geographical structure of Rus': its truly vast expanses and sparsely located cities. This fact to some extent justifies the lack of coordination of actions and the difficulty of centralizing military control. In a situation of imminent real military danger, the city was in turmoil and could not react quickly. First, it was necessary to gather an army and ask for help, which, as a rule, took a lot of time. Residents of the city had the right to accept or not accept the prince. The opinion of townspeople influenced certain political decisions. Naturally, the assessment of the significance of these decisions for the state was not always adequate. Their view proceeded from the problems of current, everyday existence, as if from their own everyday bell tower . There was also the danger of a riot. Conflicts between boyars and ordinary people were frequent. Particular aggravation of contradictions was observed in economically unstable and politically alarming moments. The reason could be a bad harvest or the danger of military intervention from foreigners. Thus, despite the outward appearance of a prosperous existence, each of the Russian cities lived its own life, sometimes filled with internal contradictions. In such conditions, it was difficult without an autocratic ruler capable of taking into account the interests of all social strata of the city's population, weighing all the circumstances, making a decision - saying a firm word.
Let us briefly look at the place of the church in the events of the early 13th century. Unlike Western Catholicism, Orthodoxy in Rus' did not have such a great influence determining state policy, although the ideas of protecting the church were key in some military and political actions. In turn, the church advised the defenders of its interests, provided them with support, and elevated their actions to the rank of spiritual.
At the same time, the significance of the adoption of Christianity in Rus' is not clear. There is also such a point of view on this matter: the adoption of Christianity is associated not so much with positive aspects for the nation, ... how much with the departure of Rus' from European civilization, the formation of a closed religious space. With the fall of Byzantium, the Russian Orthodox Church and the Russian state found themselves essentially isolated from the rest of the Christian world. Hence the refusal of Western Europe to come to the aid of Rus' in its confrontation with the infidels (Tatar-Mongols, Turks and other conquerors). Isn't that an interesting opinion? With this view of things, the role of many moments, in particular Alexander Nevsky, fades into the background, becomes insignificant, and, perhaps, negative.
The personal attitudes of an inhabitant of medieval Rus' cannot be ignored. Medieval people were dominated by faith and superstition, and often entrusted decisions to God and fate that they had to make themselves. Decisiveness was a rare quality at that time. Even in court, when analyzing complicated cases, suspects were tested with water (will they float or sink?) and a hot iron (what is the degree of burn?). Signs and omens that promised joy and sorrow, victories and defeats were remembered and recorded in chronicles.
From ancient sources that have survived to this day, it is known that the birthplace of Alexander Nevsky was the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky. The exact date of his birth cannot yet be established. Scientists suggest that it most likely falls in 1219 - 1220. And the historian of the 18th century V.N. Tatishchev, who used chronicles that have not survived to this day, reports that the future hero saw the light of day on Saturday, May 30, 1220.
The baby was named, according to the custom of that time, in honor of the saint, whose exploits the church remembered close to his birthday (June 9). The holy martyr Alexander became his heavenly patron.
The name Alexander was rare for the 13th century among princes and was reminiscent of the name of the hero of pagan antiquity, Alexander the Great.
Alexander's father was the active and powerful Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. At the time of the birth of his second son he was 30 years old . In considering the pedigree, we will adhere to this traditional point of view. The reason for this is that in the literature we have reviewed, the alternative version is not disclosed in detail, and there is no reference to the primary sources. So, the mother of Alexander, the other seven sons and two daughters of Yaroslav was probably the daughter of the Moscow prince Mstislav the Udal Rostislav. This was Yaroslav's second marriage after his marital union with the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Yuri Konchakovich. According to N.S. Borisov, the marriage was childless, and therefore dissolved.
In this case, Alexander’s grandfather was Mstislav the Udaloy, who glorified Rus' with his numerous exploits. The image of this brave and noble man served as an example for young Alexander to follow.
N.I. Kostomarov at work Russian history in the biographies of its main figures suggests that Mstislav’s personality can rightly be called a model of the character of that time. Even though he did not give a new turn to the course of events, did not create a new prototype of the social system , but on the contrary it was defender of antiquity, guardian of the existing, fighter for the truth, but for the truth, the image of which has already been formed before.
Alexander underwent training in internal and external diplomacy in Novgorod under his father, comprehending the art of subjugating the boyars and dominating the crowd, changeable and formidable. He learned this by being present at the meeting, sometimes at the council, listening to his father’s conversations.
It took much more time a man's business . It obliged to maintain order - both in the house, and in the church, and on the hunt - and in horses, and in falcons, and in hawks be knowledgeable. He liked the job and found it easy. Alexander studied together with the same young squad assigned to him by his father.
But a special place in the training and education of the prince was given to military affairs. Until he was taught all on horseback, in borneh, behind shields, with a spear, like fighting - years have passed. To wield a horse, defensive and offensive weapons, to be a tournament knight and to know the formation of foot and horse, the tactics of field battles and siege of a fortress - this is a whole world, a unique art. As with any art: some have a gift for it, others lack it . The young prince was preparing for military service. Events were being prepared that would draw Alexander into their cycle. They made him look at the city in a new way. Not the fortress, not the shrines, but the concerns and thoughts of the Novgorodians were revealed to him. Those were heavy thoughts . Increasingly, the young prince traveled with his father’s squad to distant and nearby cities, to hunt, took part in collecting princely tribute, and most importantly, in military battles. He walked the usual path for a Russian knight, and the chime of battle swords, crossed either in the fight against an external enemy or in internal strife, early reached his ears. With the upbringing of that time, strong characters developed in the princely environment very early. Sharply contrasting impressions caused by participation from childhood in campaigns in different, sometimes very dissimilar in terms of life, lands of Rus' and its neighbors, spectacles of bloody battles, conflagrations, grief of frequent separations and early losses - all these experiences developed the need to learn, developed observation skills, and strengthened the ability to generalizations. In a word, they accelerated the formation of the personality of a broad-minded, all-Russian guardian, alien to the miserable isolation of small princes. The political situation of the early Middle Ages, as already noted, implied frequent military actions and violent internal intrigues. This in turn was good visual aid for the emerging regiment
2 The history of writing the Life
The story has come to us in various editions of the 13th-18th centuries. The history of its text is extremely complex, and much remains controversial. Over the course of several centuries, the first edition (“Life”) was revised several times. Currently, 13 editions of the work are known. The relationship between senior editors and the editors of the First Sofia Chronicle has not been fully clarified.
The author of the story was probably a scribe from the circle of Vladimir Metropolitan Kirill, who came from Galicia-Volyn Rus' in 1246, therefore the story reflects the established literary traditions of the South-West and North-East of Rus'. The author reports that he personally knew Alexander Nevsky and witnessed his deeds. I am a witness of his age
According to the assumption of academician D.S. Likhachev, Metropolitan Kirill took part in the creation of the work: Without a doubt, Kirill was involved in the compilation of the biography of Alexander. He could have been the author, but most likely, he commissioned the life of one of the Galician scribes who lived in the north
In composition, the manner of describing military clashes, certain stylistic devices and some phraseological units, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” is close to another work, “The Chronicler of Daniil Galitsky.” The fact that Kirill was related to the compilation of the “Chronicle of Daniil of Galitsky” was argued by L. V. Cherepnin: The Metropolitan died in 1280, and, therefore, the time of the appearance of the “Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” should be attributed to the period between 1263-1280.
After the message about the day of Alexander’s death, the words of Metropolitan Kirill and the Suzdal residents are quoted when the sad news reached them. Metropolitan Kirill said:
My children, understand that the sun of the land of Suzdal has already set!
No such prince will ever appear in the lands of Suzdal!
The priests and the deacons, the monks, the poor and the rich, and all the people said:
We're already dying!
The story ends with a story about a “wonderful” and “worthy of memory” miracle that happened during the prince’s burial. When they wanted to put a “farewell letter” into the hand of the deceased Alexander, Tosam, as if he were alive, stretched out his hand and took the letter from the hand of the Metropolitan
Until the 16th century, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” was a kind of standard for depicting Russian princes when describing their military exploits.
This work is remarkable in that it was written by a contemporary of the events, and therefore is of great importance for understanding how the personality of Alexander Nevsky was assessed in those distant times, and what was the significance of the events in which he was a participant.
Life of Alexander Nevsky , most likely created at the end of the 13th century, and was written by a person who personally knew the prince. Here we do not see a clear chronological structure, a detailed description of important historical ones, but we see the praise of the courageous warrior, the defender of the Russian land - Alexander Nevsky. Having chosen to describe two victorious battles of the Russian army under the command of Alexander - a picture of the battles of the Russians with the Swedes on the Neva River and with the German knights on the ice of Lake Peipus, the author tried to present the descendants of the Grand Duke and his army as endowed with heroism, dedication and perseverance in the name of the interests of the Russian people of mythical warriors - heroes.
Not so much without begging for literary and historical significance Lives , written simply and lyrically in the traditions of the military story of Ancient Rus', it is necessary to note a certain one-sided approach to the description by contemporaries of the events of those years. They completed the task facing the authors at a historical turn corresponding to their modernity. The exaltation of the Russian people, the development of a sense of patriotism and hatred of enemies, and the maintenance of the authority of military leaders will echo throughout the history of Russia right up to the present day.
The Life of Alexander is not a biography, which tells in full, in detail, consistently about the prince’s entire life. The author selects only the most significant events (the battle with the Swedes on the Neva, the liberation of Pskov, the Battle of the Ice, the campaign in Lithuanian lands, diplomatic relations with the Horde and the Pope), which recreate the heroic image of a warrior prince, a valiant commander and a wise politician.
From a historical point of view, there are many inaccuracies in the Life.
For example, the Swedish king did not take part in the campaign of 1240 and the Battle of the Neva; during the raid on Suzdal land in 1252, Sartak, not Batu, was the khan of the Golden Horde. There is not a single date in the Life; events are sometimes described without the necessary specification: it is not immediately clear who the “king of the Roman country from the midnight land” is, what city, built by some “from the Western side”, is being discussed, etc. But not these details were important to the author, and the impression made by his hero. The history and the very activity of Alexander Yaroslavich in the Life appears in a transformed form, not so much in its specific manifestations and events, not in everyday details, but in a hagiographic appearance.
There is a lot of canonical, traditional for this genre in the Life. Following the canons of life, the author begins his story with self-deprecation, calling himself thin and sinful, and of little understanding. Starting to describe the “holy, and honest, and glorious” life of the prince, the author cites the words of the prophet Isaiah about the sacredness of princely power and inspires the idea of the special protection of Prince Alexander by the heavenly powers. The following description of the prince is full of delight and admiration. Alexander is handsome, like Joseph the Beautiful, strong, like Samson, wise, like Solomon, he is invincible, always winning. The idea of the sacredness of princely power and comparisons with biblical heroes determine the intonation of the entire subsequent narrative, somewhat pathetic, solemnly majestic. “Hearing about the valor of Alexander, the king of the Roman country from the northern land...” - this is how the story about the Battle of the Neva begins. The author does not mention that at this time (1240) Alexander was only 19 years old, and his contemporaries knew this well. The Life depicts a mature husband, about whom ambassadors from other countries say: “I have passed through countries and peoples, but I have not seen such a king among kings, nor a prince among princes.” Alexander learns that the Swedes came to the Neva, “puffing with the military spirit,” “reeling from madness,” threatening: “If you can, defend yourself.” His heart flares up, he goes on a campaign with a small squad, and in battle “he leaves the mark of his spear on the face of the king himself.” The prince’s speech addressed to the squad is beautiful, laconic, stern, courageous: “God is not in power, but in truth.” Alexander was decisive and brave in the battle on Lake Peipus. The prince cannot bear the boasts of the Germans: “Let us conquer the Slavic people!” He liberates Pskov, fights the German lands, embodying retribution for the pride and arrogance of his enemies. They came boasting: “Let us go and defeat Alexander and capture him.” But the proud knights were put to flight and captured, and “led barefoot beside the horses of those who call themselves “God’s knights.”
As in the description of the battle on the Neva, the author does not give a detailed picture of the battle, only a few images that help to imagine how cruel the battle was: “It seemed that a frozen lake had moved, and no ice was visible, for it was covered with blood.” The fame of Alexander's victories spread everywhere. “And his name became famous in all countries, from the Khonuzh Sea and to the Ararat Mountains, and on the other side of the Varangian Sea and to the great Rome.”
In everything, the prince and his warriors are similar. The author of the Life includes in the description of the Battle of the Neva a story about six brave men who fought “without fear in their hearts.” Each of the six has his own feat of arms. So, for example, the Novgorodian Misha sank three Swedish ships, Sava brought down the great golden-domed tent, Sbyslav Yakunovich fought with one ax so that everyone marveled at his strength and courage. Scientists believe that this story about six brave men reflected the oral tradition of the Battle of the Neva or a heroic song of the squad. To convey the greatness of spirit and the beauty of courage, the author turns not only to Russian epic traditions, but also to biblical ones. Alexander's warriors are compared in their courage and stamina with the warriors of King David, their hearts are like the hearts of lions, they are filled with the spirit of war and are ready to lay down their heads for the prince. Biblical comparisons and analogies have become one of the main elements of the artistic system of the Life. The actions of the prince are interpreted in comparison with biblical history, and this gives the biography a special majesty and monumentality. Constant comparisons and references to David, Hezekiah, Solomon, Joshua and Alexander himself are elevated to a biblical hero. Indications of help from above (the appearance of Boris and Gleb to Pelgusius before the Battle of the Neva, the miraculous beating of the Swedes by angels across the Izhora River, the help of God's regiment in the battle on Lake Peipsi) convince us of the special patronage of Alexander by divine powers.
Alexander Nevsky appears as a smart politician and diplomat in his relations with the Horde and the Pope. The answer of Alexander’s husbands to the pope’s ambassadors sounds worthy, learned and wise. Having listed the main stages in the history of mankind and Christianity, they concluded it with the words: “We will not accept teachings from you.” The description of the relationship with the Horde should convince that there are princes left in Rus' whose courage and wisdom can resist the enemies of the Russian land. Alexander's victories inspire fear in the eastern peoples; Tatar wives frighten their children with his name. Even Batu recognizes the greatness of Alexander: “They told me the truth that there is no prince like him.” And this helps Alexander “pray” the Russian regiments from participating in the campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars.
The story about the death of the prince is emotional and lyrical. The author is unable to contain his feelings: “Oh woe to you, poor man!.. How will your apples not fall out along with your tears, how will your heart not be torn out along with the roots!” The death of the prince is perceived by everyone as the greatest grief. “The sun of the land of Suzdal has already set!” - says Metropolitan Kirill (Alexander died as the Grand Duke of Vladimir), “We are already perishing!” - all the people echo him. The story of the miracle, when Alexander, as if alive, stretches out his hand and accepts the letter from the hands of the Metropolitan, is the culmination of this sublime, upbeat narrative “about the life and courage of the blessed and Grand Duke Alexander.” The author did not want to provide accurate historical information about the prince, but to inspire him with the sight of courageous beauty, righteousness and mercy.
All researchers note the literary talent of the author of the Life and his scholarship. Among the literary sources consulted by the compiler of the Life are Josephus’s “History of the Jewish War,” “Chronographic Alexandria,” and “The Deed of Devgenius.” It is believed that Metropolitan Kirill, who in 1250 moved from the south, from Daniel, to Alexander Nevsky, was directly related to the compilation of Alexander’s biography.
Chapter 2. Studying “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” in school lessons
1 History lesson
History lesson "Alexander Nevsky: modern views on the policies of the Grand Duke"
Epigraph. Winning, being Invincible (Lives of Alexander)
Lesson objectives.
Summarize students’ knowledge gained while studying the topic Rus' in the XIII century and through the characteristics of a historical figure to form an idea of the historical era in which he lived, to realize its complexity and inconsistency.
To form students’ own position regarding problematic aspects of national history. (In this lesson: What was the role of Alexander Nevsky in the events of the 13th century? Could he change the fate of the country? Did he direct Rus' along a new path?) Fostering a culture of presenting and arguing one’s own and others’ positions on the era being studied.
To develop students’ skills in working with information (analysis of texts, comparing them, summarizing). Equipment: Historical map Russian principalities in the 13th century , contour maps, portrait of Alexander Nevsky, excerpt from The story of the life and courage of the Blessed and Grand Duke Alexander , fragments from the works of historians (V. Kargalov, L. Gumilyov, S. Solovyov), videos from the series: History lessons - How long will the homeland be sick? , Princely Rus' XIII century ; Invasion .
List of additional literature:
L.N. Gumilyov From Rus' to Russia, M., 1996,
A.I. Kulyugin Rulers of Rus', M., 2000,
CM. Solovyov History of Russia, M., 1988,
N.M. Karamzin History of the Russian State, M., 2001,
V.V. Kargalov Generals of the X - XVI centuries. M., 1989
During the classes
Introductory part. The teacher notes that today we once again turn to the events that took place in Rus' in the 13th century, to the personality of Alexander Nevsky, who largely determined the development of Rus', because It was the descendants of Alexander who became the Grand Dukes of Moscow, the Tsars of Rus' (the youngest Son Daniel - Prince of Moscow - 1276, Ivan Danilovich Kalita - 1325 - 1340, Dmitry Donskoy - 1362-1389, Ivan the Terrible - 1533 - 1584.
The image of Alexander Nevsky is still relevant today. An outstanding commander and statesman lived in difficult times for Rus'. Time - feudal fragmentation. Alexander Yaroslavovich ruled in the principality where it originated Russian democracy. The strong Novgorod principality could become the center of the unification of Russian lands. But the Novgorod Veche decided Everyone chooses for themselves . Southern Rus' is busy with the senseless rivalry of princes for the Kiev throne, which has lost its power. The blood of fellow believers is shed. Rus' did not understand that mortal danger was approaching from its neighbors. The price of misunderstanding is great: humiliation, suffering, disaster for the Russian land.
Why are we better today? Everyone in their own apartment, city, region, republic - every man for himself. They forgot that quite recently our state consisted of 15 fraternal republics and was the strongest power in the world, which defended not only its territory, but also other weak nations. It’s time to understand that it was not weakness that destroyed Rus' in the 13th century. - fragmentation, it's time to moderate your pride. We are faced with the following task: to remember the time in which Alexander Nevsky lived; formulate an assessment of the policies of Alexander Nevsky; express your own attitude to politics pacification with the Horde.II. Let's remember the main events in the life of Alexander Yaroslavovich (student messages)
Prince Alexander, nicknamed Nevsky, lived only 43 years. He became the Prince of Novgorod at the age of 16, and at the age of 20 he defeated the Swedes on the river. Neva, at the age of 22, won the famous victory on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Alexander was the second son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Pereyaslavsky. The father loved his son and closely monitored his upbringing.
The main book of Alexander's childhood was the Bible. He knew it well, and much later he retold it and quoted it. The prince was also introduced to world history through translations of Byzantine chronicles. He also read the famous Alexandria - 3rd century novel about the exploits of Alexander the Great. Alexander comprehended and Russian truth.
His father Yaroslav, by hook or by crook, replenished the book depository. He took over the richest library of the Rostov Bishop Kirill. It was a precious collection, judging by the miraculously surviving copies Word of Hippolyta , Teaching Gospel . Knyazhich learned a lot at a young age, which allowed him to judge sensibly the role of Rus'.
Teacher. Alexander Yaroslavovich was an educated man. He understood the tasks facing the princes of Rus'.
Author Lives Alexandra, witness of his age says that the prince was taller than other people, that his voice sounded like a trumpet among the people, his face was beautiful, like the biblical Joseph, his strength was part of the strength of Samson, God gave him the Wisdom of Solomon, and in courage he was like the Roman Caesar - winning , was invincible.
In 1236, the ritual of seating on the table was performed in Novgorod at St. Sofia, just on the eve of Batu’s invasion. Alexander's father instructed: The cross will be your guardian and helper, and the sword your thunder! God gave you the oldest reign in the entire Russian land!
Enemies of Rus' in the 13th century.
Question. What do we know about the time in which Prince Alexander happened to live?
Answer. In 1237 and 1240, hordes of Mongol-Tatars attacked the Russian principalities. The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established over Russia.
Teacher. One enemy is known - the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Here are fragments from the works of historians who assess the relationship between Rus' and the Horde in different ways. Based on these texts, we will try to briefly formulate each author’s view of relationships
Rus' with the Golden Horde, choosing the following words: religious tolerance, protection of Orthodoxy from Catholicism, cruelty according to the norms of the time, punishment of disobedients, devastation and ruin, citizenship, subordination, systematic robbery, preservation of cities, union decline, payment of tithes.
Teacher. As a result of our work, we filled out the following table. From here we see that all historians have different assessments of the relationship between Rus' and the Golden Horde.
However, everyone agrees on one thing: the Golden Horde is a strong enemy. Excerpt from the video: Invasion .
Question. Could Alexander Nevsky gather an army from all the Russian principalities and stop and then defeat the Mongol-Tatars?
Answer. No. Feudal fragmentation in Rus'.
Nevsky was right that now tormented, small, impoverished, crushed Rus' cannot count on the force of arms to break out from under the power of the Tatars, as in the battles with the Germans and Swedes. An open challenge to the Horde would be suicide for Rus'. All that remains is to surrender to the generosity of the victors, bow to them, and recognize oneself as their slave. Alexander understood that the most reasonable thing now was to reluctantly express humility and submission to the khan.
Conclusion. In conditions of feudal fragmentation, Rus' could not successfully fight the Mongol-Tatars. Despite the desperate resistance of every single city, even the smallest. Torzhok in the spring of 1239 refused to submit, because Novgorod promised to provide assistance. However, the Novgorodians took too long to gather and did not have time for the battle.
Torzhok was taken and its population slaughtered.
Exercise. Choose from the proposed phrases characteristic of the Mongol-Tatar yoke: they did not leave garrisons, robbery, with the singing of sacred psalms, with the cross they boarded ships, did not establish permanent power, tribute, enslavement of the Russian church, supported the Christian church, freed the Russian church from taxes, replacement of Orthodoxy with Catholicism, seizure of new lands, who does not resist - do not kill, eradicate damn Greek law.
What were Rus''s relations with its western neighbors?
Message. In the 13th century Western Europe posed a growing threat to Rus'. German crusaders from Palestine moved to the Baltic states. In 1237, the Levon Order was formed, in fact a military-spiritual state, the goal of which was to capture the peoples of the Baltic states, advance to Rus' and forcefully Catholicize the conquered population. The conquest was difficult. The peoples of the Baltic states: Estonians, Lithuania, Zhmud, Yatvingians, Prussians were in a state of balance with nature. The strength of these peoples was only sufficient to survive in their native landscape. In the fight against the Germans they limited themselves to defense, they defended to the last, and only surrendered dead.
Initially, the Germans did not have much success. The knights were helped by the fact that they were supported by a very warlike tribe - the Livs. In addition, the knights found a valuable ally - the Swedes, who subjugated the Finnish tribes Sumy and Em. The Russians were treated with special cruelty than the Balts. Russians were simply killed, without making exceptions even for infants.
Excerpt from the video: How long will the Motherland be sick?
Teacher. The threat of German-Swedish aggression became obvious to Rus', its danger grew day by day. You know that Alexander Nevsky from 1240 - 1242. won victories over the Germans. (Battle of Neva, Lake Peipsi).
But the political problems were not solved.
The victory did not eliminate the possibility of a German offensive because the knights had much more strength than the Novgorodians.
The Germans replenished their wax in the 13th century. There were many volunteers in Europe who dreamed of conquering new lands. So the danger in the West was powerful.
Exercise. Choose among the proposed phrases that are characteristic of German-Swedish aggression?
Conclusion. The union of Rus' and the West was possible only on the condition that Rus' must accept Catholicism.
Question. What do you think is more important for a person: his soul or wealth?
Answer. Wealth can be returned, but you cannot live without faith.
Message. Alexander had a difficult choice of ally, because he had to choose between the Horde, in which his father died, and the West. We must pay tribute to Alexander Yaroslavovich. He perfectly understood the ethnopolitical situation and managed to rise above his personal emotions for the sake of saving the Motherland. In 1252, Alexander came to Batu’s Horde, became friends, and then fraternized with his son Sartak, as a result of which he became the adopted son of the khan.
The union of the Horde and Rus' was realized thanks to the selfless policy of Alexander Nevsky.
Excerpt from the video: Invasion .
Results of the alliance with the Mongol-Tatars:
The Russian princes retained freedom of action.
Tribute to the Mongols in exchange for military assistance against the West. (Giving away your money is always unpleasant, but it’s probably better to part with money than with independence and life).
Not only to stop the movement of the Germans to Rus', but also to undermine its very possibility, the conclusion of an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Mindaugas.
Cities and crafts were restored.
The possibility of the emergence of a new center in Rus' - Moscow, around which the Russian principalities will unite.
The created centralized state will subsequently be able to resist the Horde itself. Nevsky life story
Conclusion
And finally, it was the descendants of Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky that were built in the 14th century. on the ruins of ancient Rus' - New Rus'. (At first it was called Moscow, and from the 15th century - Russia).
For eight centuries, the name of Alexander Nevsky lives in the grateful memory of Descendants. It became a symbol of unity, part of a common national idea. In 1547, at the consecrated cathedral, the all-Russian canonization of the blessed prince took place.
great-great-grandson - Dmitry Donskoy defeats the Tatars on the Kulikovo field.
The direct descendant Ivan the Terrible defeats the Kazan Khanate and annexes it to Russia.
Ivan the Terrible begins a war against the Livonian Order.In
In n. XVIII century Peter I defeated the Swedes.
The unification of the state will be able to stop the enemy, because... strength is in unity.
Peter I transferred the relics of the prince from Vladimir to St. Petersburg, making him the guardian angel of the New Empire.
Let us wish ourselves the same love for our fatherland, our people, as we see in Alexander Nevsky.
2.2 Literature lesson
The story of the life and courage of the noble and Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky" (2 hours)
Educational:
· To give an idea of Alexander Nevsky as a historical figure and the hero of a work of art;
· Form literary concepts: hagiography, hagiography, personality, faithful.
Educational:
· Improve the ability to analyze a literary text and draw conclusions based on the analysis;
· Improve the ability to expressively read and speak coherently;
· Practice the ability of comparative analysis of historical material and works of art;
· Develop the skill of working with various sources of information in order to search and select the necessary material;
· Form independent thinking.
Educational:
· To cultivate in the learning process the following moral qualities: honesty, kindness, justice, sense of duty, mercy;
· Instill a love for literature and the history of your homeland.
Equipment: video from the Alexander Nevsky Institute)
Lesson type: repetition-summarizing.
May the descendants of the Orthodox of their native land know the past fate. They honor their great kings for their labors, for glory, for good... A.S. Pushkin
During the classes. Organizational moment... Checking homework.
III. Studying a new topic.
1. “The Tale of the Life and Courage of the Noble and Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky” (Al-r Nevsky ca. 1220-1263).
Life - a description of the life of a saint. In ancient Russian literature, the image of Christ was put forward as a model of human behavior. The hero of the life follows this pattern in his life. The Life, as a rule, describes how a saint becomes such by going through a series of trials.
As a rule, in the life it is reported
· about the main events of the saint’s life,
· his Christian exploits (pious life, martyrdom, if any),
· as well as special evidence of divine grace with which this person was marked (these include lifelong and posthumous miracles)
The lives of saints are written according to special rules (canons):
o Thus, it is believed that the birth of a child marked by grace most often occurs in the family of pious parents (although there were cases when parents, guided, as it seemed to them, by good intentions, interfered with the feat of their children, condemned them)
o Most often, a saint from an early age leads a strict, righteous life (although sometimes repentant sinners also achieved holiness, for example, St. Mary of Egypt)
o In the course of his life, the saint gains wisdom, goes through a series of temptations and defeats them.
o The saint could predict his death because he felt it.
o After death his body remained incorruptible.
V. Reading the introductory article to “The Tale of the Life...” on pp. 18 - 19.
In 1237-1240 The Mongol-Tatar invasion fell on the Russian principalities, weakened by external and internal wars. The development of Russian literature was delayed and weakened. In the chronicles about this invasion, religious motives intensified: the events were understood as “the wrath of God” for “sins.”
At the very beginning of the Mongol-Tatar conquest, German and Swedish aggression, a desire arose in Russian literature to awaken the patriotic feelings of readers. In North-Eastern Rus', “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” are dedicated to this topic, which we will discuss in today’s lesson.
) When was “The Tale of the Life of ... Al-ra Nevsky” written? (in the 80s ?3rd century) The very title of the work defines its specificity: “Tales of the life and courage of the blessed and Grand Duke Alexander” - a story about life, the main content of which was the exploits of “bravery”. - What is the purpose of this life? (To glorify the courage and bravery of Alexander, to give the image of an ideal Christian warrior, defender of the Russian land). 2) Who was it written by? (Scribe of the Monastery of the Nativity of the Virgin in Vladimir)
) Where was the body of Prince A. Nevsky buried? (here)
) What feats of A. Nevsky did he talk about? (about 3 labors:
battle on the Neva with the Swedes (1240),
about the Battle of the Ice (with the Germans on Lake Peipus (1242),
about a trip to the Horde.
) How do the first 2 labors differ from the 3rd? (1-3 - abusive. 3rd self-sacrifice)
) Why did A. Nevsky go to the khan? (to pray that the Tatars do not force Russian people to carry out military service)
) What is the significance of “The Tale ...” in the development of the Russian literature?
they imitated her, followed her like a lit. sample
its influence is reflected in many other princely lives and military stories.
What is the meaning of the word “faithful”?
Good - what is this? (Good, prosperity)
Blagoy - what is it? (Same as good. Good intention. Good impulses).
So, what kind of faithful is this? (Loyal to the good, faithful to something good. Defense of the Motherland, for example.)
Why is Alexander named Nevsky?
(He won the battle with the Swedes on the Neva River in 1240).
II. Analysis of the text “The Tale of the Life of ... Aleksandr Nevsky” Expressive reading based on the roles of fragments of “The Tale of the Life ... of Alexander Nevsky.”
Work on r/r: Checking dictionaries: reading words and expressions (in a chain), words characteristic of a given text that can be used today and that are “a thing of the past” and their explanations.
(Acts - (high) - actions, deed.
Battle (old) - battle.
Discord (obsolete) - quarrels, discord.)
1) Reading the introduction
§ What does the narrator call himself and what does he want to emphasize with this? How does he talk about being a contemporary of Alexander?
"Life" glorifies Alexander as a commander and warrior, ruler and diplomat. It opens with the “glory” of the hero, which is likened to the glory of all the world-famous heroes of antiquity.
§ Read the description of the prince's appearance and his characteristics. What is the significance of this description? (the author not only shows the physical perfection of Prince Alexander, but also compares him with biblical heroes. But if each of them was distinguished mainly by one trait (strength, beauty, wisdom, courage), then in the personality of Prince Alexander all these qualities were found reflection.
§ Question 2 (p. 26) What heroes does the narrator liken the prince to? The Novgorod hero was the same name as Alexander the Great, similar to the “king” Achilles, as well as biblical heroes Joseph, Samson, Solomon, Roman Emperor Vespasian. All the best qualities of a person are reflected in the prince: strength, beauty, wisdom, courage).
§ Before the appearance of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” was written. This is a kind of preface to the story about Alexander Nevsky. I want to read you a fragment:
“O bright and skillfully decorated Russian land! It is endowed with many wondrous beauties: many lakes, wondrous rivers, local springs, steep mountains, high hills, frequent oak groves, wonderful fields, various animals, countless birds, great mountains, wondrous villages, monastery vineyards, church churches and formidable princes, honest boyars, many nobles. You are filled with everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith...”
How does the author describe the Russian Land? The description of the Russian Land (nature, villages) is very beautiful. It is precisely such a beautiful, rich land that should have such a prince as Alexander Nevsky. And now he appears to save and liberate the Russian Land. In the personality of the prince, despite his high position, we observe amazing qualities of character.
2) It is known that a person’s character traits are especially clearly manifested in trials. What did Prince Alexander have to go through in his life? Question 3 (p. 26) What exploits does he talk about?
3) Page 26 “Be careful about the word”, question 1 (part 1)
4) Find in the text episodes that demonstrate Prince Alexander, on the one hand, as a glorious commander, on the other, as a righteous (living in truth, fulfilling Christian commandments) ruler.
Prince Alexander lived in terrible years. He had to defend Russian borders from foreigners. Despite his youth, as it is written in “Life...”, Prince Alexander “won everywhere, was invincible.” This speaks of him as a skillful, brave commander.
5) The king of the Midnight country heard these words, but, blinded by envy, maddened by pride, he took with him a large army and went against Alexander: “I’m already here, I want to capture your land - if you can, defend yourself.”
And the prince at that time had a small squad, and there was nowhere to expect help. But there is a strong faith in God’s help. Alexander went to the Church of St. Sophia, “fell on his knee before the altar and began to pray to God with tears.” “He remembered the psalm song and said: “Judge, Lord, and judge my quarrel with those who offend me, overcome those who fight with me.” Having finished the prayer and received the blessing of Archbishop Spiridon, the prince, strengthened in spirit, went out to his squad. Encouraging her, instilling courage in her and infecting her with his own example, Alexander told the Russians: “God is not in power, but in truth.” With a small squad (Courage; warrior-commander), Prince Alexander met the enemy, fought fearlessly, knowing that he was fighting for a just cause, defending his native land.
6) Next episode: Someone Pelgusy, an elder of the Izhora land, told the prince a wondrous vision. (Slide: Saints Boris and Gleb). Alexander asked not to tell anyone about this (a wise ruler) “And he decided to attack the enemies at six o’clock in the afternoon. And there was a strong battle with the Romans; He beat countless enemies and wounded the king himself in the face with his sharp spear.” In this episode, the prince is an experienced commander. He is decisive, quick-witted, dexterous. Such a prince and warriors are miracle heroes. Mutual understanding and unity lead the Russians to victory.
7) the valor of the prince is emphasized, who “put a seal on the face of the king himself [Swedish prince Lespa] with his sharp spear” - p. 22.
8) “Life” highlights the main points of Alexander’s biography, connecting them with victorious battles and biblical reminiscences (memories) are combined here with Russian historical tradition, literary traditions - with real observations of the battle: “I saw the rising sun, and stepped on the wallpaper. And there was a slash of evil and a coward from the breaking spears and a sound from the slash of a sword, as if the frozen lake were to move; and you won’t see the ice, covered with blood” - “When the sun rose, both sides came together. And there was an evil slash, and a crackling sound from the breaking of spears, and a sound from the cutting of swords, as if a frozen lake had moved. And the ice was not visible, for it was covered in blood” - page 23, below.
9) Page 26 “Let’s reflect on what we read,” question 3: What pictures do you see behind the narrator’s words: “It’s like a frozen lake has moved”?
10) Page 26 “Be attentive to the word,” question 1 (part 2) Who does Alexander call the “arrogant” people and who boasted: “Let us disgrace the Slavic people,” “Let us take Alexander with our hands” (German cities) - p. 23)?
11) Page 26 “Be careful about the word”, question 1 (part 2). Page 22. The exploits of six men, “brave and strong” (Gavrila Aleksich, Zbyslov Yakunovich, etc.) constitute interconnected episodes that have the nature of a retelling of an epic song that developed in the princely militia shortly after the battle and, obviously, on the initiative of the prince himself (“ I heard all this from my master, Grand Duke Alexander, and from others who were then in that battle” - page 22, penultimate paragraph).
12) what was Alexander's last feat? Why did he go to the king? How is this talked about in the story? “To pray people away from that misfortune” so that the Tatars do not force Russian people to perform military service.
13) In what words and on whose behalf does the author describe the grief from the loss suffered by the land of Suzdal with the death of Alexander? (p. 25, from the words “Oh, woe to you, poor man!” and to the words “Realize, the sun has set on the land of Suzdal.”) Say the words out loud and explain their meaning.
14) The work combines the features of a life and a military story. In addition, the final part of “The Life of…” includes the genre of lamentation. “Life” adopted the best “military” examples of original and translated monuments of Kievan Rus, also continuing the stylistic traditions of Galician literature. It later influenced the “Tale of the Life and Death of Prince Dmitry Donskoy” and the chronicle story “About the Massacre of Mamaev.”
15) Reading the textbook material (p. 25-26).
16) Examination of P. Korin’s illustration “Alexander Nevsky”.
(Triptych - (gr. triptychos folded in three) - 1) a folding icon with three doors; 2) a work of art consisting of three paintings, reliefs, drawings, etc., united by one idea, theme, plot.)
Pay attention to the central part of the triptych. We compare the life and the iconographic image.
Is this how you imagined Alexander Nevsky when you read the story about him? Find quotes from "The Tale..." that depict Alexander. (“His height was greater than other people,” “his face was like Joseph’s face.”) The hero is depicted monumentally, in full growth, with a sword).
What is the prince wearing? Before us is a prince-warrior and a prince-ruler. This is quite consistent with how Prince Alexander is depicted in “The Life of...”. We see the prince dressed in military armor, over which is thrown mantle.
Is it possible to see in the artist’s work that he depicted a wise ruler? The icon depicts Alexander Nevsky as a wise ruler: his face is concentrated, a deep wrinkle.
What signs tell us that this is an experienced warrior? This is a fearless and experienced warrior - bridge of the nosecross the folds of the will, the hair is whitened gray hair.
How are Alexander's eyes depicted? The eyes of Prince Alexander reflect peace, humility, and kindness. These are the eyes of a righteous man.
Bottom line. The painter knows “The Life of Alexander Nevsky,” and the iconographic image testifies to how much he was imbued with his soul and thoughts into the content of the literary monument and how dear the image of Prince Alexander is to him.
17) Examination of the paintings by G. Semiradsky “Alexander Nevsky Receives the Papal Legates”, p. 27.
o What role do details play in the picture? The most important detail is the banner with the image of Christ, which is located in the center of the upper part of the picture. It carries an ideological load: Alexander is firm in his faith.
18) V. Serov “The Entry of Alexander Nevsky into Pskov after the Battle of the Ice”, p. 28. The figure of Alexander in center, but does not separate from the figures of other people who rushed towards him in a fit of delight and gratitude. All faces are turned to the winner, the people's liberator. Alexander Nevsky is a hero of the people and with the people.. Summing up the lesson.
Characteristics of A. Nevsky
§ How did you introduce Prince Alexander?
§ Describe his personality.
§ What surprised you about A. Nevsky’s personality? When characterizing, you can use reproductions of paintings dedicated to A. Nevsky.
§ Let's make notes in notebooks: A. Nevsky is a fearless, brave, just ruler, a great commander who lives according to Christian commandments, a quiet, friendly, wise righteous man, a man of high spirituality, a true defender of the Russian land. The personality of Prince Alexander surprisingly combines the features of a glorious commander, a wise ruler and a faithful Christian. No wonder the name Alexander means “protector” in Greek.
What works of Ancient Rus' do you think were especially close and dear to their contemporaries? Why did they give preference to hagiographies?
Is it worth re-reading ancient works? Are they alive?
So, what is the artistic world of the literature of Ancient Rus', its intonations, images, colors?
A comparison of A. Maykov’s poem “The Death of Alexander Nevsky” and the final part of “The Life of...”.
Guys, so that you can perceive the personality of Alexander Nevsky in its entirety, I suggest you listen to A. Maykov’s poem “The Death of Alexander Nevsky.” Listen to it carefully and answer the question:
What mood permeates this poem and the final part of “The Life of...”?
Death of Alexander Nevsky. (slide No. (icon (fresco)
It's night outside and frosty. The month has two rainbow-colored light crowns around it... It’s as if a celebration is going across the sky. In the abbot’s cell there is a spectacle of sorrow and tears... Quietly the lamp before the image of the Savior burns... Quietly the abbot stands before him in prayer. The boyars stand quietly in the corners. Quiet and motionless, Prince Alexander lies with his head to the images, covered with a black schema... Quietly the lamp before the image of the Savior burns... The prince motionless into the darkness, looking into infinity... There, that curtain, suddenly parted in front of him... He sees: bathed as if in a golden ray, the Bank of the Neva where he struck down the enemy... Suddenly a city appears there... the shores are swarming with people, ships are waving colored flags all around... The coffin is lifted from the ship, carried to the temple, the ringing is heard, sacred hymns are sung... The lid is opened... The king says something there... Here in front of the coffin they bow to the ground, then all the people go to venerate the relics. In the coffin - the prince sees - himself. The lamp quietly burns before the image of the Savior. The prince lies motionless... His wonderful face lit up with beauty. Quietly the abbot approached him and with a trembling hand felt his Heart and forehead - And, bursting into tears, he exclaimed: “Our sun has set!”
These works convey the grief that gripped all Russians. In A. Maykov’s poem the word “quiet” is repeated so often. Of course, you can grieve in silence. But this grief again expresses the people’s love for Prince Alexander and the irreparable grief from his loss, which is felt even more acutely in silence. In “Life...” the death of the prince is described in the final part and reminds us of lamentation (the quote is read by children): “Oh, woe to you, poor man! You cannot describe the death of your master! How can your eyes not fall out together with tears! How can your heart not break from bitter sadness! A man can forget his father, but he cannot forget a good sovereign; he would be ready to go to the grave with him alive!”
Metropolitan Kirill told people: “My children, understand that the sun has already set on the land of Suzdal...”. “We’re already dying!”
It is impossible to better express one’s attitude towards Prince Alexander and once again emphasize his merits than was heard in the lament of the third part of “The Life of...”
) The relevance of the personality of Alexander Nevsky in the 20-21 centuries.
Centuries have passed... 13th century - 20th century... more than 700 years! In 1938, the feature film “Alexander Nevsky” directed by Sergei Eisenstein was released on the country’s screens, where Nikolai Cherkasov played the main role. (video from the Alexander Nevsky theater)
Teacher: Guys, why do you think such a film is being released at this time? What did the director want to say?
On the eve of what event was it created? On the eve of the 2nd World War. This is a film that inspires Soviet soldiers to win, this is a film that warns enemy that “the enemy will be defeated, victory will be ours”
The words of the hero came true: “Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.” And in 1941, the Order of Alexander Nevsky was established for the officers of the Red Army. The award was given for leading a successful operation during which the enemy suffered heavy losses. During the Great Patriotic War, more than 40 thousand people were awarded the Order. (slide Order of Alexander Nevsky)
The hero’s words are still relevant today... 21st century... 2011...
On TV screens there was a project “The Name of Russia”, in which the blessed Prince Alexander Nevsky was represented by His Holiness Patriarch Kirill. He was able to show the scale of the feat and achievements of Alexander Nevsky, for which he was awarded the highest Russian public award - the star of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky “For Labor and the Fatherland.” At the beginning of the 21st century, when the country embarks on the path of deep modernization, it becomes very symbolic that the name of Russia has become a Holy Man. Saint Alexander Nevsky is the name that will really help our contemporaries change their lives for the better.
Individual task: prepare an expressive reading of “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court.”
Work (independent) according to options.
Y option.
Name the genres of ancient Russian literature. Define a military story.
What were the names of the six brave men who “fought mightily with him [Alexander]”? What does the author compare the hearts of the “Alexandrov husbands” to?
Y option.
Name the genres of ancient Russian literature. Define hagiography.
With what words does Alexander strengthen “the spirit of his squad”? How do you understand them? By what means is the image of a hero created?
How Russian history is reflected in the paintings.
“Find fairly accurate words-definitions of the artistic world of literature of Ancient Rus' and write them down, correlating them with the works studied (including “The Tale of the Life of ... Alexander Nevsky”).”
Conclusion
Thus, summing up the research of this course work, the following conclusions can be drawn. The young Prince Alexander was not only interested in military affairs, he was a politician of his time who took a fresh look at the city. With the upbringing of that time, strong characters developed in the princely environment very early: historically, the formation of the personality of a broad-minded, all-Russian protector, alien to the miserable isolation of small princes, took place.
Secondly, in the Life there is a lot of canonical, traditional for this genre, the idea of the sacredness of princely power is conveyed and inspires the idea of \u200b\u200bthe special patronage of Prince Alexander by heavenly powers.
In his activities, Prince Alexander proceeds from the fact that: “God is not in power, but in truth.” In everything, the prince and his warriors are similar. The actions of the prince are interpreted in comparison with biblical history, and this gives the biography a special majesty and monumentality.
Alexander Nevsky appears as a smart politician and diplomat in his relations with the Horde and the Pope. The answer of Alexander’s husbands to the pope’s ambassadors sounds worthy, learned and wise. Having listed the main stages in the history of mankind and Christianity, they concluded it with the words: “We will not accept teachings from you.” The description of the relationship with the Horde should convince that there are princes left in Rus' whose courage and wisdom can resist the enemies of the Russian land. Alexander's victories inspire fear in the eastern peoples; Tatar wives frighten their children with his name. Even Batu recognizes the greatness of Alexander: “They told me the truth that there is no prince like him.”
The story about the death of the prince is emotional and lyrical.
All researchers note the literary talent of the author of the Life and his scholarship. It is believed that Metropolitan Kirill, who in 1250 moved from the south, from Daniel, to Alexander Nevsky, was directly related to the compilation of Alexander’s biography.
Life of Alexander Nevsky XIII century. was the basis for all subsequent editions of the monument in the XIV-XVI centuries. (there are more than ten of them). For a long time, the Life became a model for princely biographies and military stories; its influence is palpable in “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev,” in “The Tale of the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy” and many other works of ancient Russian literature.
Alexander Nevsky, like his comrades, belonged to the generation of new people, their behavior differed from the behavior of the appanage princes. Alexander's patriotism determined the principles of the structure of Rus' for several centuries. The traditions laid down by the prince, based on national and religious tolerance, have attracted peoples living in neighboring territories to Russia until our time.
And in modern Russia, many peoples see their protector.
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.Nasonov A.N. History of Russian chronicles of the 11th - early 18th centuries: Essays and research / Rep. ed. B.A. Rybakov. - M.: Nauka, 1969.
.The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky / Prepared / text, translation and notes.
.Okhotnikova V.I. // Military stories of Ancient Rus', see.
.Okhotnikova V.I. The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky // Dictionary of Scribes - Issue 1 Pashuto V.T. Alexander Nevskiy. M., Young Guard, 1974.
.Soloviev S.M. History of Russia since ancient times: T. 3. -M,: 19 88., p. 146-155.
.Fennel D. The crisis of medieval Rus', 1200 - 1304: Trans. from English / Intro. Art. and general ed. A.L. Khoroshkevich and A.I. Pliguzova. - M.: Progress, 1989.
.Shaskolsky I.P. The struggle of Rus' against crusader aggression on the shores of the Baltic in the XII - XIII centuries / Ed. A.G. Mankova. - L.: Science, 1978.
.Shakhmatov A.A. Review of Russian chronicles of the 14th - 16th centuries/Rep. ed. A.S. Orlov and B.D. Greeks - M.; L.: Publishing house Acad. Sciences USSR, 1938.
.Reader on ancient Russian literature: Life of Alexander Nevsky / Comp. M.E. Fedorova, T.A. Sumnikova. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 1985.
33.<#"justify">Annex 1
Test “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”
Option 1
A1. What is life?
) a historical narrative that was told by goals
) an extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events
) biographies of clergy and secular persons canonized by the Christian Church
) a work characterized by poetic fiction, but claiming some kind of authenticity in the past
A2. What was the name of Alexander Nevsky's father?
) Svyatoslav 3) Oleg
) Yaroslav 4) Rurik
AZ. What was the name of the elder of the Izhora land to whom the vision appeared?
) Sevastyan
) Pelgusy
A4. What heroes does the narrator liken the prince to?
) Alexander the Great,
) "king" Achilles
) Solomon
) Jesus Christ
IN 1. In which state did the genre of hagiography originate?
AT 2. What was the name of the bishop who blessed Alexander Nevsky before the battle?
C1. Why was Alexander Nevsky ranked among the saints?
Option 2
A1. How did the life story usually end?
) praise to the saint
) moralizing sermon
A2. What vision appeared to Pelgusius?
) Mother of God
) Boris and Gleb
) Nicholas the Wonderworker
) Apostle Peter
AZ. From which city did Alexander Nevsky expel the Germans?
) from Novgorod
) from Kyiv
) from Ryazan
) from Pskov
A4. Who did Alexander become at the end of his life?
) novice
) priest
) monk
) abbot of the monastery
IN 1. In what century was “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” created?
AT 2. In which church did Alexander pray before the battle with the king of the Roman country?
C1. What is the merit of Alexander Nevsky as a real historical figure who appears before us in life?
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Tests
Literature 8th grade
for the 2010-2011 academic year
(interim certification).
Test No. 1.
Life. "The Legend of the Life of Alexander Nevsky."
A1. What is life?
historical narrative, which was conducted over the years.
an extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.
biographies of clergy and secular persons canonized by the Christian Church
a work distinguished by poetic fiction, but claiming some kind of authenticity in the past
A2. What was the name of Alexander Nevsky's father?
1. Svyatoslav 3. Oleg
2. Yaroslav 4. Rurik
A3. What was the name of the elder of the Izhora land to whom the vision appeared?
1. David 3. Sebastian 2. Boris 4. Pelgusius A4. What vision appeared to Pelgusius? 1. Theotokos 2. Boris and Gleb 3. Nicholas the Wonderworker 4. Apostle Peter
A5. From which city did Alexander Nevsky expel the Germans?
1. from Novgorod 2. from Kyiv 3. from Ryazan 4. from Pskov
A6. In which church did Alexander pray before the battle with the king of the Roman country?
A7. How did the life story usually end?
praise to the saint
moral sermon
Test No. 2.
A.S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter.
A1. Genre of the work:
A2. Pushkin chose the proverb as the epigraph to “The Captain’s Daughter”:
“Honor is better than dishonor”;
"Debt good turn deserves another";
“Take care of your honor from a young age.”
A3. The narration of “The Captain’s Daughter” is told from the perspective of:
Emelyan Pugacheva.
Petra Grineva;
A4. What was the name of Grinev’s teacher and faithful companion?
Savelich
Stepanych
A5. What did Grinev give to his counselor who helped him get to the inn?
hare sheepskin coat
ring
five-altyn
A6. In Grinev’s humiliating words addressed to Savelich (“I am your master, and you are my servant”), the author uses:
synonyms
antonyms
A7. How did Shvabrin behave after the capture of the fortress?
1. paid off 2. went over to Pugachev’s side 3. escaped from the fortress 4. hid in the priest’s house
A8. Grinev’s refusal to serve Pugachev is due to the fact that:
Grinev was not offered the position of commandant of the Belogorsk fortress
He wanted to quickly leave the fortress and Orenburg
He is a nobleman and swore allegiance to the Empress.
A9. The answer from Grinev, who refused to cooperate with Pugachev, reads:
coarseness
sincerity 3. arrogance
Pugachev pardoned them
the father was killed, the mother managed to escape
both were killed
A11. Character traits and behavioral features of Masha Mironova that help reveal her image:
weakness, indecision, timidity
pride, selfishness, disregard for people
selfless love, selflessness, sense of duty
A12. Pyotr Grinev returned to the Belogorsk fortress, captured by the rebels, to:
arrest Pugachev
save Masha Mironova
give Pugachev a letter from the general
A13. Why was Grinev taken into custody?
Pugachev said that Grinev is his spy
Shvabrin slandered him
for unauthorized excommunication from Orenburg
he was slandered by defectors unknown to him
A14. Pugachev in the story “The Captain's Daughter” is presented as:
rebel, criminal
historical figure - leader of a popular uprising
romantic hero
a simple man, respected by the people
A15. What features of the Russian national character are shown by A.S. Pushkin in the image of Pugachev?
intelligence, resourcefulness
laziness, inactivity
daring, generous nature
drunkenness
good memory, gratitude
A16. Catherine II is shown in The Captain's Daughter as:
kind, reasonable, and fair woman
the imperious empress who mercifully forgave the innocent Grinev
an attentive, compassionate woman who believed Masha’s stories.
A17. Which character do the words belong to?
Execute like that, execute like that, favor like that.
A18. Whose portrait is this?
His appearance seemed remarkable to me: he was about forty, average height, thin and broad-shouldered. His black beard showed streaks of gray: his big, lively eyes were darting around._________________________________
Test No. 3.
Lermontov M.Yu. "Mtsyri".
A1. Genre of the work.- ballad confessional poem poem
- imbued with a feeling of repentance protects his rightful will and happiness the story of what happened to the hero
- showing the past of Georgia, a story about life in a monastery, the beauty of a man ready to die for freedom
- comparison metaphor personification
Test No. 4.
N.V. Gogol “The Inspector General”.
A1. The plot of “The Inspector General” is the scene:
1. Khlestakov’s appearance in the mayor’s house;
2. conversation between the mayor and officials;
3. message from Bobchinsky and Dobchinsky about incognito.
A2. Osip's monologue at the beginning of the second act was introduced by the author in order to;
1. the servant could speak out, express his annoyance;
2. Russian literary criticism did not accuse the author of inattention to people from the people;
3. tell the audience about Khlestakov.
A3. Khlestakov’s boasting against the background of the worship and respect of officials is caused primarily by:
1. a childish naive dream of being a government official;
2. fear for your situation, which may change;
3. Khlestokov’s stupidity, frivolity, impunity in the current circumstances.
A4. Officials see that Khlestakov is stupid, but do not want to admit it:
1. the position of auditor stops them;
2. fear for the illegality of their actions deprives them of speech;
3. otherwise you will have to admit your stupidity and limitations.
A5. Khlestakovism is:
1. unrestrained, shameless boasting and actions that are thoughtless and unexpected for the hero himself;
2. the desire to follow fashion in everything;
3. careerism, fraud.
A6. Khlestakov's courtship of Marya Antonovna is:
1. an accidental affair that strengthened his position in the mayor’s house;
2. a real, bright feeling of being in love;
3. cruel mockery of a provincial young lady.
A7. Having learned the truth about Khlestakov, the mayor:
1. was afraid that everyone would laugh at him now;
2. was indignant that he could not see in him a stupid, worthless boy;
3. I was glad that he was not an auditor.
A8. A situation in which Khlestakov’s true face is revealed only to the viewer, and the characters mistake him for an auditor, creates:
comic effect;
special drama;
pessimistic mood.
A9. What is the meaning of the "silent scene"?
1. a real auditor is an awakened conscience. This is how Gogol affirms the idea of the inevitability of retribution for an unrighteous life.
2. introduction of elements of folk art;
3. emphasize the degree of surprise of the characters in the play by the message.
T e s t No. 5.
I.S. Turgenev “Asya”.
A1. Genre of the work:
1. story
3. story
A2. The reason for the failed love of Asya and Mr. N:
1. mental weakness, cowardice of the hero;
2. the character of the heroine;
3. Gagin's disagreement.
A3. The denouement in the work:
1. departure of the Gagins;
2. date with Frau Louise;
3. last conversation with Gagin.
A4. The fate of the narrator, doomed to loneliness, is to blame:
1. Mr. N;
A5. The special charm of the main character lies in her:
1. character;
2. behavior;
3. romantic mystery.
A6. The lyrical sadness of the hero of the work is imbued with:
1. a dream about the future;
2. bitter self-condemnation
3. a feeling of satisfaction that Asya did not become his wife.
A7. A special idea of the heroine is created by:
1. Gagina’s story about her;
2. her actions, behavior in various situations;
3. Frau Louise's story about her.
A8. The work is dedicated only to the theme of love:
1. “The young lady-peasant”;
3. "Stationmaster."
Test No. 6.
I.S. Turgenev "After the Ball".
A1. Genre of the work:
A2. The following helps to reveal the idea of a work:
antithesis
hyperbola
personification
A3. How can you characterize the meaning of the title of the story?
1. the importance of the hero’s fate after the ball;
2. the special significance of the scene of the massacre of the soldier;
3. the importance of the morning following the ball.
A4. Why did the colonel, attentive and sensitive during the ball, turn out to be cruel and heartless towards the soldier?
2. at the ball he put on a “mask” of integrity;
3. conscientiously, without judgment, fulfills his official duties;
4. sincerely believes in the need for cruel reprisals,
A5. Determine the main idea of the story.
1. a person’s fate depends on chance;
2. condemnation of the thoughtless implementation of rules, because of which injustice flourishes;
3. the idea of personal responsibility of a person.
A6. With the help of what artistic detail does L.N. Tolstoy prove the sincerity of the colonel’s feelings for his daughter?
1. suede glove;
2. white mustache and sideburns;
3. sparkling eyes and a joyful smile;
4. “homemade” boots.
A7. What can be said about the main character’s life position?
1. affirms Tolstoy’s idea of “non-resistance to evil through violence”;
3. the idea of the need to “change living conditions” in order to “change a person’s views.”
A8. The work makes you think about:
1. the fate of the colonel;
2. personal responsibility of a person for the life of society;
3. love of Ivan Vasilyevich.
A9. What did the narrator do in relation to Varenka after he saw the scene of the soldier’s punishment?
1. stopped loving her;
2. proposed to her;
3. hated her;
4. continued to love her.
A10. The incident that happened to Ivan Vasilyevich influenced his future life, namely:
1. he became a military man;
2. he did not serve anywhere else;
3. He blamed the colonel for all his failures.
T e s t No. 7.
A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin".
A1. Genre of the work:
stylization of epic.
A2. The plot of the work is based on:
fantastic
life situation;
a combination of fantasy and life-like.
A3. The peculiarity of the verse of the work is:
presence of pompous vocabulary;
close connection with live spoken language;
deliberate complexity.
A4. Vasily Terkin:
historical figure;
fairy tale hero;
collective image.
A5. The hero of the work can be called:
exceptional;
ordinary;
ordinary.
A6. A.T. Tvardovsky compares Soviet soldiers with:
fabulous heroes;
medieval knights;
Russian warriors of past centuries
by their fathers.
A7. What is the meaning of comparing Terkin with an old soldier?
show continuity of generations;
emphasize the depth of Turkin’s faith in victory
show the national character of the war
expand the idea of Tyorkin’s versatility.
Sometimes serious, sometimes funny,
It doesn’t matter whether it’s rain or snow,
Into battle, forward, into utter fire,
He comes, holy and sinful,
Russian miracle man.
2. emphasize the exclusivity of the main character;
3. show Vasily Terkin as a generalized, collective image of a Russian soldier;
4. assert the invincibility of the Russian national character.
Along with chronicle writing, as in previous centuries, in the 13th century. The most important genre of ancient Russian literature is hagiography - the lives of saints: stories about the lives and exploits of people recognized as saints by the church. As mentioned above, the authors of hagiographies in their work were closely bound by the requirement to strictly adhere to the genre canons developed by the centuries-old history of this genre, church-religious in its objectives. This is the reason for the abstractness and rhetoric of the lives, for the fact that the lives of different saints, written at different times, are in many ways similar to each other. But, as was also noted above, the heroes of the lives were real historical figures; the authors of the lives were people of their time, and to one degree or another, the political concepts of that time resonated in the lives they wrote; One of the sources that hagiographers resorted to was oral traditions about the saint, and these oral traditions reflected both real events from the life of the saint and fabulous and fantastic legends about him. All these factors had a destructive effect on genre canons and contributed to the penetration of historical, topical, journalistic, plot-fascinating episodes into hagiographic works. The more significant the deviations from genre canons in a life, the more interesting such a life is from a literary point of view. Of course, in any case, the literary talent of the author of the life also matters. These characteristic features of the hagiographic genre, inherent in it from the beginning, are reflected in the lives written in the period of history of ancient Russian literature we are considering.
Below we will dwell on four monuments of the hagiographic genre of this time: two of them are lives of church and religious figures, two are princely lives.
Life of Abraham of Smolensk. The lives of the ascetics of the church, which can be dated back to the mid- to late 13th century, should generally be characterized as monuments that strictly adhere to the canons of the hagiographic genre. An example is the “Life of Abraham of Smolensk,” compiled by Ephraim in the middle of the 13th century. The life begins with a rhetorical introduction of a general nature and ends with an equally rhetorical praise of the saint. The author of the life speaks about himself with an extreme degree of self-deprecation. The hagiographer talks abstractly and generally about the biographical facts from the life of his hero, although Ephraim was a student of Abraham and could have heard about the events of his life from himself. At the same time, in accordance with the requirements of hagiographic etiquette, he uses stylistic cliches: Abraham was born “from a father,” in his youth he “didn’t go to games with frost”, in the monastery he “abided... in work and in vigil and in hunger day and night”, “all obey the abbot and obedience to all the brothers.” The main content of “The Life of Abraham” is a story about his preaching activities in Smolensk, about the persecution that he endures from the local clergy and from Smolensk. This is told quite colorfully, but abstractly and rhetorically - with hints, comparisons with biblical events, allegorically. It is very difficult to get a concrete idea from this story about why Abraham aroused such hostility from both the clergy and the residents of Smolensk, and how he managed to avoid the threat of physical violence hanging over him.
Life of Varlaam Khutynsky. In the 2nd half - end of the 13th century. in Novgorod, the initial edition of the “Life of Varlaam Khutynsky”, the founder of the Khutyn monastery near Novgorod, was compiled. This is a prologue-type hagiography - a short story about the life of a saint, intended for the Prologue. Here, in a concise form, basic information is provided about the life path of the ascetic - the founder of the monastery. And as a characteristic feature of the hagiography genre, it should be noted that in this life, of a different type than the “Life of Abraham”, and independent of the latter, the common passages coincide with the “Life of Abraham”. In “The Life of Varlaam Khutynsky” we also read: “When I was born... I will return to my parents and peasants and God-fearing people,” “And people will not deign to play with frost.”
At the time when the initial edition of the “Life of Varlaam Khutynsky” was compiled, legendary stories about him of a fabulous and novelistic nature existed in the oral tradition. But such stories began to be included in written hagiographic texts later. In the 13th century In the life of a church ascetic, episodes of everyday, fairy-tale and legendary nature are not included.
We see a different picture in the princely lives created at the same time. While a number of hagiographic etiquette provisions, images, and verbal cliches are preserved, in the princely lives there are significant deviations from the canon and violations of it. First of all, this was due to the fact that the hero of the life was a statesman, and not an ascetic of the church; in addition, it was in the princely lives written during the period under review that the events of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke were reflected. At this time, the “Life of Alexander Nevsky,” the great commander and statesman of Ancient Rus', was created, a number of princely lives appeared, in which the prince appears not only as a statesman and commander, but also as a suffering prince who suffered martyrdom in the Horde.
Life of Alexander Nevsky. “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” in its original edition was written in the Nativity Monastery in Vladimir, where the prince (died in 1263) was buried, most likely before 1280, the year of the death of Metropolitan Kirill, since a number of data speak about his participation in the creation of this life. “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” was supposed to show that even after Batu’s invasion, after the defeat of the Russian principalities, there were still strong and formidable princes in Rus' who could stand up for the Russian lands in the fight against the enemy and whose military valor inspired fear and respect in the peoples surrounding Rus' .
“The Life of Alexander Nevsky” is close to “The Chronicler of Daniil Galitsky” in the manner of describing military clashes, individual features of style, composition, and phraseology. According to the convincing assumption of D.S. Likhachev, such closeness of these works is explained by the involvement of Metropolitan Kirill II in their creation. Kirill was close to Daniil Galitsky and participated in the compilation of the “Chronicle of Daniil Galitsky”, and later, having settled in North-Eastern Rus', he took an active part in the state activities of Alexander Nevsky. “Without any doubt,” writes D.S. Likhachev, “Kirill was involved in the compilation of Alexander’s biography. He could have been the author, but most likely he commissioned the life of one of the Galician scribes living in the north.”
“The Life of Alexander Nevsky” also has a significant genre difference from “The Chronicler of Daniil Galitsky”: from the very beginning it was written as a hagiographic work, it is a monument of the hagiographic genre. Genre features are reflected in the author's preface with elements of self-deprecation and the author's etiquette information about himself, in the way the narrator reported at the beginning of his story about the birth and parents of Alexander (“... born from a merciful and man-loving father, and even more meek, the great Prince Yaroslav , and from Mother Theodosia"), in the story about the miracles that happened after Alexander’s death, in numerous digressions of a church-rhetorical nature. But the real image of the hero of the story, his actions gave the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” a special military flavor. The narrator’s feeling of living sympathy for his hero, about whom he not only heard “from his fathers,” but was also a “witness of his growth” (p. 159), admiration for his military and state affairs gave “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” some kind of then special sincerity and lyricism.
The characteristics of Alexander Nevsky in the Life are very diverse. In accordance with hagiographic traditions, Alexander’s “church” virtues are emphasized. About people like Alexander, the author says, the prophet Isaiah said: “The prince of good things in countries - quiet, kind, meek, moderate - is in the image of God” (p. 175). He “is not a lover of the priesthood and a lover of the world, and a lover of the poor. The metropolitan and the bishops honor and obey them, like Christ himself” (p. 176). On the other hand, he is a courageous hero-commander, terrible for his enemies. “His gaze [view, image] is more [here, more majestic] than a man, and his voice is like a trumpet among the people” (p. 160). Victorious, Alexander himself is invincible: “... he will never find an opponent in battle” (p. 172). In his military actions, Alexander is swift, selfless and merciless. Having learned about the arrival of the Swedes on the Neva, Alexander, “inflamed in heart,” “in a small squad” rushes towards the enemy. He is in such a hurry that he has no time to “send a message to his father,” and the Novgorodians do not have time to gather their forces to help the prince. Alexander's swiftness and heroic prowess are characteristic of all episodes that speak of his military exploits. In these descriptions, Alexander appeared as an epic hero. The combination in one narrative sequence of an emphatically “ecclesiastical” and even more clearly expressed “secular” plan is a stylistic feature of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky.” And it’s remarkable that despite this diversity and, it would seem, even contradictory characteristics of Alexander, his image is intact. This integrity is created by the author’s lyrical attitude towards his hero, by the fact that for the author Alexander is not only a hero-commander, but also a wise statesman who cares about his people. He “judges the orphan and the widow in truth, the merciful one, who is good to his household” (p. 175). This is the ideal of a wise prince, ruler and commander. It is no coincidence that, describing the death of Alexander, the author of the Life, in one of his sorrowful exclamations, almost repeats Daniil Zatochnik: “For a man can leave his father, but he cannot powerfully leave the good of a master” (p. 178) (cf. Daniil Zatochnik: “The prince is a generous father there are many servants: many of them leave their father and mother, they resort to him”).
The heroic-epic spirit of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” led to the inclusion in the text of the Life of an episode telling about six brave men who distinguished themselves during the Battle of the Neva. The author says that he heard about this from Alexander himself and “from others who were found in that battle at that time” (p. 168). The episode appears to be based on some kind of oral epic tradition, or perhaps a heroic song about the six brave men. True, the author of the Life only listed the names of the heroes, briefly reporting the feat of each of them.
Describing the military exploits of Alexander, the author of the Life, with freedom unusual for a hagiographer, used both military epic legends and the visual means of military stories. This explains the stylistic originality of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky,” and it, in turn, was determined by both the real appearance of the hero of the Life and the author’s task to paint the ideal image of the prince - the defender of the homeland. The author of “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” so successfully solved the task set for himself that this Life was written down to the 16th century. served as a kind of standard for the “high” style of depicting a prince-commander.
Life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. Close in time of creation to “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” and “The Life of Mikhail Chernigov”. This is a different type of princely life from the era of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. In 1246, in the Horde, on the orders of Batu, the Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich was killed, along with the boyar Fedor, who accompanied him to the Horde. The murder was of a political nature, but in the Life of Michael the death is presented as voluntary suffering for the Orthodox faith.
As mentioned above, a record of the death of Mikhail of Chernigov in the Horde was placed in the Rostov chronicle of Princess Marya. The daughter of Mikhail Vsevolodovich, Rostov princess Marya, together with her sons, established church veneration of Mikhail and boyar Theodore in Rostov. In this regard, a prologue life of Mikhail of Chernigov was written - a short story about his death in the Horde. The Life was written before 1271 (the year of Princess Mary’s death). This short prologue “The Life of Mikhail of Chernigov” served as the basis for a number of later and more extensive editions of the hagiographic narrative about the death of the Chernigov prince in the Horde. The first of these editions was compiled at the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. priest Andrey.
The Chernigov prince, who came to the Horde to bow to Batu, refuses to perform Tatar rituals: to walk between the fires and bow to Tatar idols. Mikhail is killed. Boyar Fyodor does the same as his master and also dies. Going to the Horde, both Mikhail and Fyodor know that death awaits them there, but this is why they go to “expose” idolatry - “unholy faith.” This line of the Life has a pronounced ecclesiastical overtones. But in the Life the psychological-dramatic line is no less strong. Mikhail's grandson, the Rostov prince Boris, who was in the Horde at that time, and other Russians who happened to be in the Horde at that time, persuade the Chernigov prince to submit to the will of the Tatars, promising with all his people to accept penance for him. Boyar Fyodor fears that persuasion will have an effect on the prince: remembering “a woman’s love and the caress of children,” the prince will give in and submit to the demands of the Tatars. But Mikhail is firm. He decided to fulfill his duty to the end. Taking off his princely cloak, Mikhail throws it at the feet of the persuaders and exclaims: “Accept the glory of this light, this is what you want.” It tells how Mikhail and Fyodor were killed, with dramatic detail that slows down the narrative and heightens its emotional impact.
This second line of the Life - the story about the circumstances of the murder of the prince and boyar - made it not an abstract church-religious narrative about suffering for the faith, but a vital story about Tatar cruelty and the unshakable pride of the Russian prince, who sacrifices his life for the honor of his land.
Based on the model of the “Life of Mikhail of Chernigov” in the 14th century. “The Life of Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy” will be written, who was killed in the Horde in 1318 through the machinations of the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich. And here the prince voluntarily goes to the Horde. But his dedication is no longer explained by religious motives, but by the prince’s concern for the fate of his principality. The story about the humiliation of Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde and the circumstances of his death is complicated by a number of strong details and psychologically acute situations.
Of the literature intended for reading, the most popular was hagiographic or hagiographic literature (from the Greek word agios - holy).
Hagiographic literature has its own history associated with the development of Christianity. As early as the 2nd century, works began to appear describing the torment and death of Christians who were victims of their beliefs. These works were called martyrdoms. They all had the same form, with the central part being the interrogation of the martyr, which was conveyed in the form of a dialogue between the judge and the defendant. The final part consisted of the verdict and the message about the death of the martyr. It should be noted that the martyriums did not have any introductions, arguments or final words. The martyr, as a rule, did not say anything in his own defense.
Since 313, the persecution of Christians ceased, and there were no more martyrs. The very idea of the ideal Christian has changed. The author, who set the goal of describing the life of a person who somehow stood out from the crowd, faced the tasks of a biographer. This is how they appeared in literature lives. Through the Lives, the church sought to give its flock examples of the practical application of abstract Christian concepts. Unlike the martyrium, the hagiography aimed to describe the entire life of the saint. A life scheme was developed, determined by the tasks that the life pursued. The life usually began with a preface in which the author, usually a monk, humbly spoke about the inadequacy of his literary education, but immediately gave arguments that prompted him to “try” or “dare” to write the life. What followed was a story about his work. The main part consisted of a narrative dedicated to the saint himself.
The narrative outline is as follows:
- 1. Parents and homeland of the saint.
- 2. Semantic meaning of the name of the saint.
- 3. Training.
- 4. Attitude towards marriage.
- 5. Asceticism.
- 6. Dying instructions.
- 7. Demise.
- 8. Miracles.
The life ended with a conclusion.
The author of the life pursued, first of all, the task of giving an image of the saint that would correspond to the established idea of the ideal church hero. From his life, those facts were taken that corresponded to the canon, everything that diverged from these canons was kept silent. In Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries, the translated lives of Nicholas the Wonderworker, Anthony the Great, John Chrysostom, Andrew the Fool, Alexei the Man of God, Vyacheslav the Czech, and others were known in separate lists. But the Russians could not limit themselves to only translating existing Byzantine lives. The need for church and political independence from Byzantium attracted interest in creating its own church Olympus, its own saints, who could strengthen the authority of the national church. Hagiographic literature on Russian soil received a unique development, but at the same time, of course, it was based on Byzantine hagiographic literature. One of the earliest works of the hagiographic genre in Rus' is “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk,” written by Nestor between 1080 and 1113. Here is a living and vivid image of an advanced person, formed by the conditions of social struggle in Kievan Rus, the struggle of the young feudal state with the outdated tribal system of the East Slavic tribes. In The Life of Theodosius, Nestor created the image of a hero of ascetic life and the leader of a monastic squad, the organizer of a Christian monastery, dispelling the “demonic darkness” of paganism and laying the foundations of the state unity of the Russian land. The hero of Nestor was very close to becoming a martyr of the faith he professed - humility, brotherly love and obedience. The heroes of another work by Nestor, “Readings on the life and destruction of the blessed passion-bearer Boris and Gleb,” became such martyrs.
In ancient Russian literature there are two Legends about Boris and Gleb - an anonymous one, dated 1015, attributed to Jacob, and “Reading”, written by Nestor.
"The Tale of Boris and Gleb" (“The Legend and Passion and Praise of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb”) is the first major work of ancient Russian hagiography. The topic itself suggested to the author the genre of the work. But nevertheless, “The Tale” is not a typical work of hagiographic literature. The style of the “Tale” was influenced by translated Byzantine hagiography. But the "Tale" departs from the traditional three-part form of Byzantine lives (introduction, biography of the saint, final praise). The author overcomes both the form and the basic principles of Byzantine hagiography, which he himself is aware of, calling his work a “Tale” and not a “Life”. “The Tale” does not contain what we usually find in hagiographies - a detailed introduction, a story about the hero’s childhood. At the center of “The Tale” are hagiographically stylized portraits of Boris and Gleb and a story full of intense drama about their tragic death. Perhaps the most revealing feature of “The Tale” as a literary work is the widespread development of internal monologue in it. The uniqueness of the monologues of works of this genre is that they are pronounced by the characters “silently”, “in the heart”, “in themselves”, “in their mind”, “in their souls”. In “The Tale” we have an internal monologue that is no different from direct speech spoken out loud. The author of the “Tale” did not attach much importance to the historical accuracy of his story. Here, as in any hagiographic work, much is conditional; historical truth is completely subordinated to the moral, political and church-ritual tasks set by the author in this work. And, as N.N. Ilyin notes, the “Legend” from the point of view of fidelity differs little from “real lives”. Boris and Gleb were the first Russian saints, therefore, “the first own representatives for her (for Rus') before God and the first guarantee of God’s favor towards her.” Boris and Gleb were not martyrs in the proper and strict sense of the word, for although they suffered martyrdom, it was not a death for the faith of Christ, but for political reasons unrelated to faith. The author needed recognition of Boris and Gleb as saints of the Russian Church, so he adheres to the obligatory condition for canonization - the working of miracles, and devotes the main part of his work to describing the miracles performed by the relics of Boris and Gleb. As N.N. Ilyin points out, the “Tale” really does not represent a strict canonical life compiled according to Byzantine templates. It was a different kind of attempt to unite and consolidate in literary form scattered and contradictory fragments of oral traditions about the death of Boris and Gleb, the circumstances of which were veiled by the religious haze that formed around their Vyshny Novgorod tombs.
"Reading about the life and destruction of the blessed passion-bearer Boris and Gleb", compiled by the author of “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” Nestor, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, is a life similar to Byzantine hagiographic works. Nestor undertook a description in the spirit of Byzantine monastic and martyr's lives. He begins the “Reading” with a prayer and with an acknowledgment of the “rudeness and foolishness” of his heart, about the “thinness” of the author. Next he talks about Christ’s atonement for human sin, gives a parable about slaves, then follows the story of Boris and Gleb. And here, unlike the “Tale,” we get acquainted with the details of the brothers’ biography, the author talks about their love of reading, that both brothers gave alms to all those in need; that young Boris got married only by yielding to his father’s will; that Gleb was with his father and after his death tried to hide from Svyatopolk “into the midnight lands.” That is, “Reading” is written according to strictly established hagiographic schemes. The influence of Byzantine hagiographical templates also affected the literary language of the Readings, in the manner of replacing specific proper names with symbols and epithets. In other cases, personal names and geographical names disappear altogether: the names of the Alta and Smyadina rivers, the names of murderers, and even the name of Georgy Ugrin are not found. In contrast to the bright, rich and emotional style of the "Tale", Nestor's presentation is pale, abstract, dry, the images of the dead are schematic and lifeless, and therefore, as Prof. points out. S.A. Bugoslavsky, “Reading” of Nestor, which gave a hagiographic solution to the historical theme, could not supplant the more vivid historical story of the anonymous “Tale”. “Reading” is a real life, a literary work, the form of which the author got an idea from reading translated lives. But the “Reading” was not just a life of the church type. It was a work of a philosophical and historical nature.
At the end of the 12th century or a little later, shortly before the collapse of the Kyiv state, “The Life of Leonty of Rostov” was written. The hero of this life is a missionary who penetrates into the wilds, inhabited by tribes that have not yet emerged from the state of savagery and “pagan darkness.” Too poor in the facts of the hero’s ascetic activity, the “Life” gives an image of him impoverished in content, far inferior, in the sense of completeness and brightness of the image, to the heroes of Nestor’s Lives. The image of a missionary exploring virgin lands is barely outlined here and is not clearly presented. He is a pale sketch of what he would become later, in the lives of the 14th-15th centuries. What makes this work similar to a hagiography is the presence in its composition of an extensive afterword, characteristic of works of the hagiographical genre, with a story about the posthumous miracles that happened around the hero’s tomb, and with a concluding word.
In the 20s of the 13th century, successors of the line of the hagiographic genre appeared, the beginning of which was laid by the “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”. The monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, Simon and Polycarp, wrote legends about the miracles of the heroes of ascetic asceticism, creating the main body of that collection of hagiographic tales, which would later receive the name “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”. When creating their collection, Simon and Polycarp gave it the form of a compositionally unified work - a form of correspondence, during which a string of mechanically adjacent legends about miracles that happened in the Kiev Pechersk Monastery unfolded. The characters appearing in these tales are representatives of ascetic asceticism. These are all “fasters”, like Evstratiy and Pimen; “recluses” - Athanasius, Nikita, Lavrenty, Ioan; martyrs of chastity - Jonah, Moses Ugrin; “non-acquisitive” who gave away their property - the Chernigov prince Svyatosha, Erasmus, Fedor; “free” doctor Agapit. They all received the gift of miracles. They prophesy, heal the sick, raise the dead, cast out demons, enslave them into doing assigned work, feed the hungry by turning quinoa into bread and ashes into salt. In the epistles of Simon and Polycarp we have an expression of the genre of Patericon, as collections of hagiographical nature, which, not being hagiographies in the strict sense of the word, repeated in their tales the motifs and forms of the style already presented by the Life of Theodosius of Pechersk.
But in the 13th-14th centuries, when Rus' found itself under the yoke of infidel conquerors, this type of religious ascetic was not as close to the heart of the Russian reader as the type of Christian martyr represented in the literature of the pre-Tatar period by the heroes of hagiographies about Boris and Gleb. In the 13th century, the hagiographic genre was enriched by a work whose hero has no predecessors in hagiographic literature. This is “The Life and Patience of Abraham of Smolensk,” whose hero accomplishes the feat of a saint of God persecuted by enemies, representing a type of passion-bearing still unfamiliar to us. The hero goes through the life path common to all ascetics, and therefore, in the story about him, the author uses commonplaces of the hagiographic genre. Drawing the image of Abraham, the author especially emphasizes his ascetic devotion to the study and mastery of the literature of Christian enlightenment, arising from the conviction that the ignorant shepherd of the church is like a shepherd who has no idea where and how the flock should graze, and is only capable of destroying it. His talent and ability to interpret the meaning of sacred books is noteworthy. Abraham has sympathizers and enemies, such as the senior clergy. They lead the persecution of Abraham, accuse him of heresy, unleash a stream of slanderous fabrications on him, incite the church hierarchs against him, who prohibit him from clergy, and seek to bring him before a secular court in order to finally destroy him. Abraham appears before us as a victim of blind malice and slanderous fabrications. This is a completely new motivation for the hero’s passion-bearing fate in hagiographic literature, indicating that the conflict between the hero of the “Life” and his persecutors is caused by conditions of social reality that are significantly different from those in which the lives of the Kyiv period were created. The hagiographic heroes of this period opposed the “demonic darkness” and contrasted the ideals of a Christian righteous life with the concepts and skills of the pagan past. In the 14th century, it was not “demonic darkness” that opposed the bearer of Christian enlightenment, but the darkness of ignoramuses, “taking up the rank of priesthood,” and this clash gave birth to a new type of ascetic, represented by the image of Abraham of Smolensk, persecuted by slanderers for his “in-depth” study and “interpretation” of Christian wisdom. Abraham walks the hard path of a persecuted righteous man, patiently striving for his righteousness to become universal among the people. This is the originality and novelty of the literary image of Abraham. “The Life of Abraham” is not so much an epic story about the hero’s life as his apology, the justification of his personality from unfair accusations, and this is a completely new form of life.
A unique stage in the development of the hagiographical genre in Rus' is the creation of the so-called princely hagiographies. An example of such lives is "The Life of Alexander Nevsky." The name of Alexander Yaroslavich, the winner of the Swedish feudal lords on the Neva and the German “dog knights” on the ice of Lake Peipsi, was very popular. Stories and legends were written about the victories he won, which after the death of the prince in 1263 were processed into a hagiography. The author of the Life, as established by D.S. Likhachev, was a resident of Galicia-Volyn Rus', who moved with Metropolitan Kirill III to Vladimir. The purpose of the life is to glorify the courage and bravery of Alexander, to give an image of an ideal Christian warrior, defender of the Russian land. In the center is the story of the battles on the Neva River and on the ice of Lake Peipus. The reasons for the Swedes' attack on the Russian land are explained very naively: the Swedish king, having learned about the growth and courage of Alexander, decided to capture the “land of Alexander”. With a small squad, Alexander enters the fight against superior enemy forces. The battle is described in detail, much space is devoted to the exploits of Alexander and his warriors. The battle on Lake Peipsi with the German knights is depicted in the traditional stylistic manner of military stories. In this battle, Alexander showed mastery of military maneuver, unraveling the enemy’s tactical plan. The main content of the “Life” consists of purely secular episodes, but elements of the hagiographic style are used very widely in it. A short introduction is written in a hagiographical style, where the author speaks of himself as a “thin, sinful, unworthy” person, but he begins his work about Alexander, since he not only heard about him “from his fathers,” but also personally knew the prince. The origin of the hero from pious parents is emphasized. When characterizing the hero, the author resorts to biblical characters. Religious and fantastic pictures are introduced into the descriptions of battles. In a conversation with the papal ambassadors, Alexander operates on the text of the “Holy Scripture” from Adam to the Seventh Ecumenical Council. The pious death of Alexander is described in hagiographical style. “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” becomes a model for the creation of later princely biographies, in particular the life of Dmitry Donskoy.
At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, a new rhetorical-panegyric style emerged in hagiographic literature, or, as D.S. Likhachev calls it, “expressive-emotional.” The rhetorical style appears in Rus' in connection with the formation of the ideology of a centralized state and the strengthening of the authority of princely power. The rationale for new forms of government required a new form of artistic expression. In search of these forms, Russian scribes first of all turn to the traditions of Kyiv literature, and also master the rich experience of South Slavic literature. A new expressive-emotional style is developed initially in hagiographic literature. The Life becomes a “solemn word”, a magnificent panegyric to Russian saints, demonstrating the spiritual beauty and strength of their people. The compositional structure of the life changes: a small rhetorical introduction appears, the central biographical part is reduced to a minimum, lament for the deceased saint acquires independent compositional significance, and finally praise, which is now given the main place. A characteristic feature of the new style was close attention to various psychological states of a person. Psychological motivations for the actions of the heroes began to appear in the works, depicting the well-known dialectic of feelings. The biography of a Christian ascetic is considered as a history of his internal development. An important means of depicting a person’s mental states and motivations are his lengthy and florid speech-monologues. The description of feelings obscures the depiction of the details of events. The facts of life were not given much importance. The text included the author's lengthy rhetorical digressions and reasoning of a moral and theological nature. The form of presentation of the work was designed to create a certain mood. For this purpose, evaluative epithets, metaphorical comparisons, and comparisons with biblical characters were used. The characteristic features of the new style are clearly manifested in “A Tale on the Life and Death of Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia” This solemn panegyric to the conqueror of the Tatars was created, apparently, shortly after his death (died May 19, 1389). “The Tale of Life” pursued, first of all, a clear political task: to glorify the Moscow prince, the conqueror of Mamai, as the ruler of the entire Russian land, the heir of the Kyiv state, to surround the prince’s power with an aura of holiness and thereby raise his political authority to unattainable heights.
The talented writer Epiphanius the Wise played a major role in the development of the rhetorical-panegyric style in hagiographic literature of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. He authored two works: “The Life of Stephen of Perm” and “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”. The literary activity of Epiphanius the Wise contributed to the establishment in literature of a new hagiographic style - “weaving words.” This style to a certain extent enriched the literary language, contributed to the further development of literature, depicted the psychological state of a person, the dynamics of his feelings. The further development of the rhetorical-panegyric style was facilitated by the literary activity of Pachomius Logothetes. Pachomius is the author of the lives of Sergius of Radonezh (a reworking of the life written by Epiphanius), Metropolitan Alexy, Kirill Belozersky, Varlaam Khutynsky, Archbishop John and others. Pachomius was indifferent to the facts, omitted many details and sought to give the life a more magnificent, solemn and ceremonial form, exorbitantly strengthening the rhetoric, expanding the description of “miracles”.
In all of the above works, as in ancient Russian literature in general, man and personality did not occupy a large place. The personality usually dissolved in a kaleidoscope of events, which the author tried to convey with protocol precision, while he primarily pursued informational goals. Events were formed from the actions of certain people. These actions were the focus of the author's attention. A person in himself, his inner world, his way of thinking rarely became the object of depiction, and if he did, it was only when it was necessary for a more complete and comprehensive presentation of events, and this was done incidentally, along with other facts and events. A person became the central figure of the narrative only when the author needed him to fulfill the main artistic task: i.e. it was necessary to make a person the bearer of his author’s ideal. And only in this case, in the world of the ideal, did a person acquire all the characteristic features of an artistic image. But it should be noted that in constructing his image, the ancient Russian writer composed and invented more than conveyed reality.
Speaking about ancient literature, O. Balzac noted that writers of antiquity and the Middle Ages “forgot” to depict private life. But the point, of course, is not a matter of forgetfulness, but the fact that the structure of ancient and feudal society itself does not provide the basis for private life. “Every private sphere,” said K. Marx, “has a political character here or is a political sphere.”
Likewise, in ancient Russian literature, private life could not become the object of the writer’s depiction. The main characters are “representatives of the elements of statehood: kings, heroes, military leaders, rulers, priests,” and they were primarily characterized from the point of view of their political, official existence. As D.S. Likhachev notes, ancient Russian literature, in its official and solemn line, sought to abstract the phenomena of reality. Old Russian authors tried to extract “eternal” meaning from phenomena, to see in everything around them symbols of “eternal” truths, the divinely established order. The writer sees eternal meaning in everyday phenomena, therefore the ordinary, material things are not of interest to ancient Russian writers and they always strive to depict the majestic, magnificent, significant, which in their opinion is ideal. This is the reason that literature in ancient Rus' is predominantly built on conventional forms; this literature changes slowly and consists mainly of combining certain techniques, traditional formulas, motifs, plots, and repeating provisions. This is precisely what can be seen when considering hagiographic literature written according to a certain hagiographic formula. Sometimes one can see some deviations from the canon in one or another author, but these deviations are not significant and do not go beyond the scope of the “hagiographic formula.”
But, calling Old Russian literature “abstracting, idealizing reality and creating compositions often on ideal themes” (D.S. Likhachev), one cannot help but note that Old Russian literature is characterized by deviations from the canon and exceptions in the nature of a particular genre. These deviations and exceptions can be seen already in the literature of the 17th century, at least in the same genre of hagiographic literature.
By the 17th century, hagiographies deviated from the established pattern and sought to fill the narrative with real biographical facts. Such lives include “The Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya”, written in the 20-30s of the 17th century by her son, Murom nobleman Kalistrat Osorin. This is more of a story, not a life, even a kind of family chronicle. This life, unlike all previous lives, was written by a secular author who knows well the details of the hero’s biography. The work was written with love, without cold, cliché rhetoric. In it we are faced with a reflection of the life and historical era in which Juliania Lazarevskaya lived. Life is not devoid of traditional elements; here we meet with a demon who acts as an active force. It is the demon who causes severe disasters to Juliania’s family - he kills his sons, pursues and frightens Juliana, and retreats only after the intervention of St. Nicholas. Elements of miracle play a certain role in the work. Juliania refuses the temptations of worldly life and chooses the path of an ascetic (refuses intimacy with her husband, intensifies her fast, increases her time in prayer and work, sleeps on sharp logs, puts nut shells and sharp shards in her boots, after her husband’s death she stops going to the bathhouse). She spends her entire life in work, always takes care of the serfs, and patronizes her subjects. Juliania refuses ordinary services and is distinguished by her delicacy and emotional sensitivity. The most significant thing in this image, as a way of life, is that she leads a pious life being in the world, and not in a monastery, she lives in an atmosphere of everyday worries and everyday troubles. She is a wife, mother, mistress. She is not characterized by a traditional biography of a saint. Throughout life, the idea is conveyed that it is possible to achieve salvation and even holiness without sequestering yourself in a monastery, but piously, through work and selfless love for people, living the life of a layman.
The story is a clear indication of the growing interest in society and literature in the private life of a person and his behavior in everyday life. These realistic elements, penetrating into the genre of hagiography, destroy it and contribute to its gradual development into the genre of a secular biographical story. “Holiness” here acts as an affirmation of kindness, meekness, selflessness of a real human person living in worldly conditions. The author managed to embody the real human character of his era. He does not seek to make him typical, he sought a portrait resemblance and he achieved this goal. “Filial feeling” helped the author overcome the narrowness of hagiographic traditions and create a fundamentally truthful biography of his mother, her portrait, and not an icon.
The artistic merits also include the fact that the heroine is depicted in the real everyday life of a landowner family of the 17th century, the relationships between family members, and some legal norms of the era are reflected. The process of destruction of traditional religious idealization was reflected in the fact that the author combined everyday life with the church ideal.
This story prepared the literary direction of a completely new genre - autobiography, the hero of which is even more closely connected with everyday life and historical circumstances, and his conflict with the official church reaches unprecedented severity. Such a work is a monument of the second half of the 17th century - “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” Avvakum Petrov (1621-1682) - the son of a simple village priest, a writer who struggled with the ritual side of literature, with all kinds of conventions, striving to reproduce reality not in conventional forms, but closer to it. Avvakum tried to find the real reasons, the driving forces of this or that event. The work of Avvakum, imbued with elements of “realism” (D.S. Likhachev), had a progressive significance, since it shook the inviolability of the medieval structure of literature and undermined the conventions of literature. Archpriest Avvakum, the ideologist of the religious and social movement, which went down in history under the name “schism,” was born in 1621 in the village of Grigorov, Nizhny Novgorod region. In the middle of the century, Habakkuk became a prominent figure in the church and devoted himself to his work with passion.
The Russian state and Russian society in the 17th century experienced a turbulent period of their development. At the beginning of the century, the tsarist government under the rule of the new Romanov dynasty made great efforts to overcome the devastation and confusion in the country after many years of wars and internal strife. The church reform, prepared by the activities of the “spiritual brethren”, which developed around Archpriest Stefan Venifatiev, dates back to the middle of the century. The “brotherhood” included the young and energetic Avvakum. The “Brotherhood” set itself the task of implementing legislative measures to strengthen church piety; with their reforms they wanted to establish strict and uniform church orders, with the direct introduction of these orders into the life of the people.
Avvakum Petrov wrote over eighty works, the vast majority of which were written in the last decades of his life, mainly during the years of Pustozersk exile. It was here, in the “Pustozersky log house” that Avvakum’s fruitful work began. The written word turned out to be the only way to continue the struggle to which he devoted his whole life. Avvakum’s works were not the fruit of idle reflection or contemplation of life from an “earthly” prison, but were a passionate response to reality, to the events of this reality.
Avvakum’s works “Book of Conversations”, “Book of Interpretations”, “Book of Reproofs”, “Notes”, his wonderful petitions and the famous “Life” - the same sermon, conversation, teaching, reproof, only no longer oral, but written, in which he still “screams.” Let us dwell on the central work - “Life”.
In all of Avvakum’s works one can feel a great interest in Russian life, in reality; in them one can feel a strong connection with life. In the Life, the logic of reality, the logic of reality itself seems to dictate to the writer. Like any ancient social religious movement, the schism movement also needed its “saints.” The struggle, suffering, “visions” and “prophecies” of the ideologists and leaders of the schism became the property of first oral rumors, and then the object of literary depiction. The commonality of ideological goals pushed individual writers to interact. Works of this order reflected not only the ideas of its creators, but also their destinies, while being saturated with elements of living biographical material. And this, in turn, made it possible to transition to autobiographical creativity in the proper sense of the word. The need for autobiographical creativity arose when the leaders of the movement began to be subjected to severe persecution and execution, and auras of martyrs for the faith were created around them. It was during this period that abstract ideas about the martyrs and ascetics of Christianity came to life and were filled with topical social content. Accordingly, hagiographic literature was revived, but under the pen of Epiphanius, and in particular Avvakum, this literature was transformed and deviated from the previously established “hagiographic formulas.” The emergence of autobiography as a literary work was accompanied in the field of ideas and artistic forms by a sharp clash between innovation and tradition. These are, on the one hand, new features of the worldview, expressed in an awareness of the social significance of the human personality, a personality that always fell out of sight of ancient Russian writers; on the other, medieval ideas about man and traditional forms of hagiography.
The “Life” of Avvakum, which pursued propaganda objectives, was supposed to reflect those life circumstances that were the most important and instructive in his opinion. This is exactly what the authors of ancient Russian lives did, who described and revealed those episodes from the life of the “saints” that were the most important and instructive, losing sight of everything else. Avvakum selects material for his narrative in a completely different way, which differs sharply from the selection of material in traditional lives. The central place is given to the description of the struggle against Nikon’s reforms, the Siberian exile and the continuation of the struggle after this exile. He tells in great detail about his life in Moscow, full of clashes with enemies. The narration in this part is very detailed, and the image of Habakkuk himself reaches its highest development. And vice versa, autobiographical material dries up as soon as Habakkuk finds himself in prison. Unlike hagiographers, Avvakum covers more and more objects of reality in his work. Therefore, sometimes his autobiography develops into the history of the first years of the split. In hagiographic literature, which set itself the task of showing the “holiness” of the hero and the power of “heavenly” forces, “miracles” and “visions” occupy an important place. But they are depicted there for the most part externally descriptively, as they appear to a hagiographer. The result of the “miracle” is revealed rather than the process of its formation itself. Autobiographical storytelling creates very favorable opportunities for reviving traditional “miracles.” “Miracles” and “visions” become one of the forms for depicting reality. Here the process of formation of a “miracle” is revealed as if from the inside, since the author acts as a direct eyewitness and participant in the “miracle” and “vision”. In his autobiography, the author overcomes hagiographic abstraction and materializes “miracles” and “visions.” In Avvakum, always turned to reality itself, the “miracle” is autobiographically revealed to readers as a result of the conscious activity of the author (Abakkuk’s meeting with demons does not occur in a dream, as in Epiphanius, Avvakum’s contemporary, but in real reality and the struggle with them is not direct struggle, but struggle with people in whom the “demon” sits). In addition, Habakkuk does not impose his “miracles” on the reader, as hagiographers did, but, on the contrary, he denies his involvement in them. Speaking about the innovation of Avvakum’s “Life”, about the deviation from “hagiographic formulas”, it should be noted that Avvakum’s striking innovation is the depiction of a person, especially the main character. The image of this autobiography can be considered the first complete psychological self-portrait in ancient Russian literature. Habakkuk showed this image in all its contradictions and heroic integrity, in eternal connection with a certain environment. Habakkuk is never alone. The author's attention is focused on the central figure, but this image does not suppress the other characters of the Life with its superiority, as is typical in hagiographic literature. The image of the central character is always surrounded by other characters.
Avvakum's close connection with the democratic layers of the population who participated in the schismatic movement determined the democracy, innovation and significance of the Life.
“The Life” of Avvakum is considered the “swan song” of the hagiographic genre, and Gusev called this work “the forerunner of the Russian novel.”
