Achievements of culture of the 18th century. Russian culture of the 18th century

The 18th century in the history of Russia became truly fateful. It was a time of radical change caused by Peter's reforms. With its transformations Peter I turned Russia abruptly to the West. This turn and its consequences for the development of Russia and Russian culture became the subject of a heated debate among scientists and thinkers, which flared up with particular force in the 19th century. and continues to this day.

For some, the changes that had begun aroused the highest appreciation, delight and admiration, while others, on the contrary, appreciated them very much. critically. seeing in them the sources of all subsequent troubles and misfortunes in Russia. In particular, the Russian religious philosopher P.Ya. Chaadaev gives a sharply negative assessment of Peter’s actions, believing that he “dug a gap between our past and our present.”

The French enlightenment philosopher D. Diderot looks at Peter just as critically, believing that with his too hasty and forced Europeanization, he caused irreparable harm to Russia, depriving it of the opportunity to successfully master Western achievements in the future. Some authors reproach Peter for destroying the former integrity of Russian culture, making it torn, contradictory and sick, splitting it into two parts, one of which - the culture of the upper strata of society - lost the originality of Russian culture and became alien to the bulk of the people.

Supporters Peter's reforms hold a different point of view. Thus, the authoritative historian S.M. Soloviev believes that Europeanization turned out to be quite compatible with the cultural and historical development of Russia. In his opinion. Peter, with his reforms, carried out what took place in the West during the Renaissance. The historian K.D. held approximately the same opinion. Kavelin.

Peter's reforms difficult to assess unambiguously, they had a dual character. First of all, the choice made by Peter between East and West in favor of the latter was historically necessary and therefore correct. Attempts to preserve the former original Russia in an unchanged form were hardly feasible, or they could lead to Russia losing its independence and independence, and at the same time to the disappearance of its originality.

The transformations begun by Peter caused the economic growth of Russia and allowed it to significantly expand its territory - due to the annexation of Crimea. Northern Black Sea region, Northern

Caucasus and western lands, turned it into a great and powerful empire. Thanks to victories in the Northern and Turkish wars, Russia received the status of a Baltic and Black Sea power. New large cities arose in it - St. Petersburg, which became the capital of the state, Sevastopol, Ekaterinoslav, Ekaterinodar, Ekaterinburg, Odessa, etc.

Russia's high economic and military potential allowed it to exert enormous influence on the course of world history. At the same time, grandiose transformations have become a difficult test for the people. He had to pay a huge price for creating a new Russia.

The figure of Peter is also exceptionally complex and ambiguous. He possess incredible strength will, inexhaustible energy, firm and persistent character, was gifted with many talents. His vigorous activity rested not only on will, but also on broad knowledge and rich practical experience. Peter was a man of high culture. He knew two foreign languages ​​(Dutch and German), was fluent in 14 crafts, had a sharp mind and creative thinking, was endowed with a strong aesthetic sense.

Peter regretted that he could not work with both hands at the same time: hold right hand sword, and in the left - a feather. This would allow him to do much more. He believed that the purpose of the state is internal and external security, and it must find its glory in art and science. While turning Russia to the West, he did not renounce national culture and ancient traditions. He showed deep respect to the past, which was expressed in the construction of new churches, in special veneration for the work of Alexander Nevsky, whose remains were transferred to St. Petersburg, to the Nevsky Lavra specially built for this.

Although the era of “enlightened absolutism” in Russia is associated with Catherine II, in reality it was Peter who was the real enlightened monarch. The same can be said in relation to the West. Europe did not know such a ruler as Peter, although the concept of “enlightened absolutism” is usually attributed to it. Peter was rightly called the “northern giant.” Emphasizing the scale of his outstanding personality, Pushkin noted that Peter “alone is the whole world history.”

At the same time, his personality was not without extremes. In his actions, will and arbitrariness sometimes prevailed over measure and reason. He started some of his own reforms! without proper preparation, and during their implementation he allowed excessive haste and impatience. His favorite expressions were “do not hesitate”, “do this immediately.” Peter's maximalism and uncompromisingness sometimes turned into wild rage and merciless cruelty. This happened even in relation to his relatives, in particular to his son Alexei.

Almost all areas of public life were subjected to deep reform - the state administrative structure, the economy, the army, the Church, science and education, artistic culture. The main content and nature of the reforms being carried out expressed two trends: secularization, i.e. worldliness. weakening of the religious and strengthening of the secular principle in culture. as well as its Europeanization.

In 1711, instead of the former large Boyar Duma (up to 190 people), Peter I established Senate. consisting of 9 people appointed by the king himself. The criterion for selection to the Senate was only business qualities, and previous hereditary privileges were not taken into account. The Senate will act as the highest body in matters of legislation and public administration.

Previous orders were replaced by 12 collegiums (ministries), in charge of individual areas of public administration. The country was divided into provinces And counties. Thanks to these innovations, the state reached the highest degree of centralization and turned into an absolute monarchy.

Of utmost importance was Church reform, which significantly limited the place and role of religion and the Church in the life of society. The main loss of the Orthodox Church is the abolition of the patriarchate. His place was taken by the Spiritual College, or Holy Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor appointed by the king. In fact, the Synod was not much different from other government institutions.

The church lost part of its lands and income, which significantly weakened the ss economic fundamentals. The clergy was placed on a par with other classes. The priests were charged with the duty not only to promote the ongoing reforms, but also to help the authorities in identifying and detaining opponents of the reforms. At the same time, they were even required to violate the secrecy of confession: under pain of execution, the priests had to report on the intentions of those confessing to commit a state crime. As a result of all these measures, the Church became nationalized. She found herself completely dependent on secular power.

The Petrine era created favorable conditions for economic revival. Russia is beginning to actively develop industrial production. The number of weaving and textile enterprises, especially those producing cloth and wool, is rapidly growing in the country. The Urals became a center for metal smelting, which since the 20s. XVIII century exported abroad. Industrial production of porcelain was organized for the first time.

Significant progress is observed in all material culture, in technology and technology. Ural heating engineer I.P. Polzunov developed a project for a universal steam engine and built a steam power plant, ahead of the English inventor D. Watt. Self-taught mechanic I.P. Kulibin invented many mechanisms - a clock, a searchlight, a semaphore telegraph, and developed a design for a bridge across the Neva. In agriculture, a scythe is used instead of a sickle, stud farms are created, and cattle breeding is successfully developing. Peter I attached great importance to trade, calling it “the supreme owner of human destiny,” and contributed in every possible way to its development. On his initiative, large fairs are organized, canals are built: Vyshnevolotsky was built, construction of the Volga-Don canal began.

The development of material culture and economy allowed for modernization army, which made it one of the most modern and powerful. Horse artillery appears for the first time in the Russian army, hand grenades and a bayonet begin to be used. The main achievement in military affairs was the creation of the Russian fleet - Peter's favorite brainchild.

Russian science of the 18th century.

XVIII century became the time of creation in Russia systems of secular education and science, which were practically absent before. The profound transformations taking place in all areas of public life acutely raised the problem of raising the cultural and educational level of the population, which could not be solved without a broad networks of new educational institutions. In 1701, a Navigation School was opened on the Sukharev Tower in Moscow, which in 1715 was transferred to St. Petersburg, where the Naval Academy was created on its basis. A little later, several more schools similar to the Navigation School appeared - Engineering, Artillery and Medical.

In 1703, the private secondary school of E. Gluck was opened in Moscow, with the task of training personnel for scientific activity. Digital schools formed the basis of primary education in provincial cities. Various types of officials were trained in special schools for clerks. At the largest manufactories - in the Urals and other places - vocational schools were opened. In 1722, the first commercial school appeared.

Played a major role in the formation and development of science St. Petersburg Academy, created on the initiative of Peter and opened in 1725. Initially, the Academy consisted mainly of foreign scientists who expressed a desire to work in Russia. Many of them were world famous: mathematicians L. Euler and D. Bernoulli, physicist F. Epinus, botanist P. Pallas. The first Russian academicians were the geographer S.G1. Krasheninnikov, naturalist and traveler I.I. Lepekhin, astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky et al.

Unlike Western ones, the Russian Academy did not deal with theology, being an entirely secular state institution. At the same time, she was closely connected with Russian art. In 1732, an art department was organized under her. Having strong support from the state, the Academy already in the first decades created world-class works.

The great Russian scientist played an exceptional role in the development of domestic and world science M.V. Lomonosov(1711-1765), who became the first Russian member of the Academy in 1745. He was not only a great naturalist, but also a poet, philologist, artist, and historian. In terms of the scale of his personality, he was in no way inferior to the European titans of the Renaissance. Emphasizing the universal nature of his personality, A.S. Pushkin noted that “Lomonosov embraced all branches of education,” that “he experienced everything and penetrated into everything.”

The most important milestone in the formation and development of Russian science and education was the foundation in 1755 of Moscow University. Initially it had three faculties: philosophy, medicine and law. Then it quickly became the largest center for training specialists in all branches of knowledge. Created in 1783 The Russian Academy of Sciences, the first president of which is Princess E.R. Dashkova. The Academy also played a huge role in the development of domestic science. Her first major scientific achievement was the six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy, which contained interpretations of basic scientific terms and concepts. In general, we can rightfully say that over the course of one century, Russian science has made a powerful leap forward. Starting almost from scratch, she was able to rise to the world level.

The 18th century was celebrated profound changes in public consciousness, a significant revival and rise of social thought. This was facilitated by both Peter’s reforms and strengthening and expanding contacts with European countries, thanks to which the ideas of Western rationalism, humanism, etc. penetrated into Russia. One of the important features of the changes taking place in the public consciousness is the weakening of the influence of religious ideology and the strengthening of the secular, scientific and rational principles. The second significant feature is the desire to comprehend the past and present of Russia, which was accompanied by a growth in national self-awareness.

A major Russian thinker of the 18th century. was Feofan Prokopovich, contemporary and associate of Peter. In his works (“The Tale of the Tsar’s Power and Honor,” “The Truth of the Monarch’s Will,” etc.) he develops the Russian version of the concept of enlightened absolutism. Building on European ideas of natural law, social contract and the common good and combining them with Russian characteristics, Prokopovich. being an admirer of Peter, he glorified his deeds in every possible way and presented him as an example of an enlightened monarch. He was also the ideologist of the reform of the Church, substantiating the need for its subordination to the state.

An interesting and deep self-taught thinker was I.T. Pososhkov, author of “The Book of Poverty and Wealth.” Being a supporter of Peter, he at the same time stood in opposition to the nobility, expressing and defending the interests of the peasantry, merchants and artisans.

The works are devoted to understanding the past of Russia V.N. Tatishcheva- the first major Russian historian who wrote “Russian History from the Most Ancient Times.” In it he traces the history of Russia from Rurik to Peter I.

- writer and philosopher - occupies a special place in the spiritual life of Russia. He developed the concept of the Russian Enlightenment in its radical, revolutionary form. In his main work, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” the writer drew a bright picture the terrifying situation of the serf peasantry, in which he saw the deep sources of future upheavals in Russia. Radishchev proposed a project of reforms from above, which were democratic in nature and included the liberation of the peasants.

Russian literature of the 18th century.

Art culture Russia XVIII V. is also undergoing profound changes. It is increasingly acquiring a secular character, experiencing growing influence from the West. By the middle of the century, the main European styles had fully developed in it: classicism and baroque.

In literature, classicism is represented by A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky And M.V. Lomonosov. The first of them achieved literary fame with his satires. Because of the witticisms, jokes and sarcasms they contained, directed against those in power and the clergy, he made influential enemies at court, which delayed their publication for three decades.

Trediakovsky is the author of the poem "Tilemakhida". He also made a significant contribution to the theory of literature, developing the principles of Russian versification, influenced the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky. A.A. Delviga, N.I. Gnedich. Many of his subsequent works were also written in the form of odes that had deep meaning. philosophical content and high civic sound. In addition, he is the author of tragedies, satires and epigrams. Some of his works are close to Baroque in style.

Russian architecture of the 18th century.

IN architecture Western influence had the greatest impact. The new capital of Russia - Saint Petersburg— represented a sharp contrast with Moscow. The city of Petra was created on completely new principles of urban planning, which had an ensemble character, based on the strict cladding of streets, squares, administrative buildings and palaces. Until recently, it was St. Petersburg that was considered a real modern city, while Moscow was often called a “big village.” Some admirers of the handsome Petersburg suggested calling it the “eighth wonder of the world” - in addition to the well-known “seven wonders”.

Only today, in connection with the emergence of postmodern architecture, which caused a reassessment of values, Moscow again rose above St. Petersburg in its architectural significance.

Russian classicism in the architecture of the 18th century. represented I.E. Sgarov, D. Quarenghi, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov. The first of them built the Tauride Palace and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg. Quarenghi created the pavilion " Concert hall"and the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (now Pushkin), the Hermitage Theater and the Assignation Bank in St. Petersburg. Bazhenov and Kazakov worked in Moscow. The first one owns the magnificent Pashkov house, and the second one owns the old building of Moscow University, the Senate in the Kremlin, and the First City Hospital.

Russian baroque in architecture found a vivid embodiment in the work of D. Trezzini and V.V. Rastrelli. The first one built the “building of the Twelve Colleges” (now the university), the Summer Palace of Peter I and the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg. Second - Winter Palace(now the Hermitage) and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the large palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo.

Russian painting of the 18th century.

The 18th century was the heyday of Russian painting. Russian portraiture rises to the level of the best examples of European art. The founders of the portrait genre are A.M. Matveev And I.N. Nikitin. The first painted “Self-portrait with his wife” and paired portraits of the Golitsyn spouses. The most famous works of the second are “Floor Hetman”, “Peter I on his deathbed”.

Portrait painting reaches its highest peak in creativity F.S. Rokotova, D .G. Levitsky And V.L. Borovikovsky. The first became famous for his paintings “Unknown in pink dress" and "V.E. Novosiltsova". Levitsky created the paintings “Kokorinov”, “M.A. Dyakov." Borovikovsky owns the famous painting “M.I. Lopukhin." Along with portraiture, historical painting is successfully developing. She is represented by A .P. Losenko. who painted the paintings “Vladimir and Rogneda”, “Hector’s Farewell to Andromache”. The artist also worked in the portrait genre.

In the 18th century Contemporary sculpture is born and successfully develops in Russia. Here, too, the portrait occupies a leading place. The most significant achievements are related to creativity F.I. Shubina, working in the spirit of classicism. He created bust portraits

A.M. Golitsyna, M.P. Panina, M.V. Lomonosov. Created in the Baroque style B. Rastrelli. His best work is “Empress Anna Ivanovna with a Little Arab.” In the genre of monumental sculpture, the most famous creation is “The Bronze Horseman”, created by E. Falcone.

In the 18th century noticeable changes are taking place in music, although not as deep as in other forms of art. A new national instrument is being created - balalaika(1715). Since the middle of the century, the guitar has become widespread. Church singing continues to develop successfully. choral music. At the same time, new genres are emerging. In particular, military music appears, performed by brass bands. Chamber-instrumental, operatic and symphonic music emerged. Many aristocrats start home orchestras. The work of D.S. deserves special mention. Bortnyansky, who created beautiful choral works, as well as the operas “The Falcon” and “The Rival Son”.

In the 18th century The first professional Russian theater is born. Its creator was great actorF.G. Volkov.

Profound changes affected not only the considered areas of culture, but also the entire way of everyday life. One of the main changes here was related to the introduction of a new chronology and calendar. By decree of Peter, instead of the previous counting of years from the “Creation of the World,” it was henceforth prescribed to count years from the Nativity of Christ. those. from January 1, 1700, as was customary in European countries. Is it true. Europe enjoyed Gregorian calendar, and in Russia Julian was introduced. According to Peter's decree, a new tradition was established - solemnly celebrate the “New Year and the Centennial Century”, decorating the gates of houses with pine, spruce and juniper branches, arranging shooting, games and fun.

According to another decree of Peter, a new form of communication between people was introduced - assemblies. Representatives of the upper classes of society gathered at them to relax and have fun dancing, casual conversations, and playing chess and checkers. IN daily life The court nobility also included a tradition of bilingualism. Under Peter and Anna, the German language spread, and starting with Elizabeth, French. The influence of French culture was also evident. that the ladies of noble society begin to play the harpsichord.

Significant changes are taking place in clothing. Old Russian long robes are giving way to German caftans and short and narrow European clothes. Men of the upper classes are losing beards. Among the court nobility, European rules of etiquette and secular manners of behavior were established. The rules of good manners among the children of nobles are promoted by the popular book of that time, “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct.”

Cultural transformations and innovations of the 18th century. concerned mainly the privileged classes of Russian society. They hardly affected the lower classes. They led to the destruction of the former organic unity of Russian culture. Moreover, these processes did not take place without costs and extremes, when some representatives of the highest circles of society completely forgot the Russian language and culture, Russian traditions and customs. Nevertheless, objectively they were necessary and inevitable. Cultural transformations contributed to the overall development of Russia. Without modern secular culture, Russia would not be able to claim a worthy place among the advanced countries.

Petrine reforms, palace coups, “enlightened absolutism” during the reign of Catherine II greatly influenced the history of our country, so the culture of Russia in the 18th century differs sharply from previous centuries.

Life

During the reign of Peter I, a radical breakdown of old traditions took place. The Tsar passionately wanted to bring Russian culture closer to Western culture. Thus, in 1700 the European system of counting years was introduced, and New Year henceforth came from January 1, it was also ordered to shave off beards and wear German or Hungarian dress. The assemblies became permanent, i.e. entertaining evenings with noble persons, and it was necessary to appear there with their wives and daughters, which was not previously allowed. However, most of these transformations affected only the upper strata, while the vast majority of the population lived in the old way.

Education

Reforms and wars required the training of high-quality personnel, so Peter I paid great attention to education. Military and “digital” schools and a Medical School were organized. The emphasis in teaching was on exact sciences. To awaken a thirst for knowledge, Peter I founded the Kunstkamera - the first Russian Museum. Also according to the idea of ​​the tsar, but after his death, the Academy of Sciences was opened.
During the 18th century (especially in the second half), the class character of education intensified, and new educational establishments: Moscow University (1755), Smolny boarding school for noble maidens (1764), public schools and others.

Literature.

In 1702, the Vedomosti newspaper was first published. For the needs of the school in 1703, the famous textbook by L. Magnitsky “Arithmetic” was published. In 1721, F. Prokopovich wrote the “Spiritual Regulations” to justify the reforms of Peter I in the church sphere.
Literature truly flourished during Catherine's reign. At this time, three directions were developing: classicism (A. Radishchev, V. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin and A. Sumarokov), sentimentalism (N. Karamzin) and artistic realism (D. Fonvizin). The Empress herself published the humorous magazine “All sorts of things.” N. Novikov was a prominent publicist.

Architecture.

In the 18th century, the Baroque style was predominant. They worked in it: D. Trezzini (Peter and Paul Cathedral) and B.F. Rastrelli (Winter Palace). However, at the end of the century, Baroque gives way to classicism, represented by such masterpieces as the Pashkov House in Moscow (V. Bazhenov) and the Senate building (M. Kazakov).

Painting, sculpture, theater

The main genre of painting throughout the 18th century was portraiture. Outstanding artists of that time: F. Rokotov, I. Nikitin, A. Matveev, D. Levitsky and V. Borovikovsky. Landscape, everyday and historical genres are born.
In sculpture, special mention should be made of C. Rastrelli, E. Falcone, F. Shubin and M. Kozlovsky.
The first state public theater began its work in 1756. Its director was the merchant and actor F. Volkov.

Science and technology.

After the creation of the Academy of Sciences, it became an organizing center where prominent Russian scientists, including M.V. Lomonosov, worked. In addition, foreign historians G. Miller and G. Bayer worked there. Among the Russian representatives of the same science there were also many talented ones: V. Tatishchev, M. Shcherbatov, N. Novikov.
Technological thought achieved enormous achievements during the reign of Catherine II. An elevator, an arched bridge across the Neva, a “self-running stroller,” an optical telegraph and a searchlight are just some of the projects and inventions of I. Kulibin. Also important is the creation of the first steam engine in Russia by the self-taught mechanic I. Polzunov.

So, the opening of the “window to Europe” gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russian culture in the 18th century. It was at this time that art was finally freed from the influence of the church, its new forms appeared and the cultural heritage of our country increased many times over.

In the 18th century Russian culture rapidly Europeanized, became secularized, acquired a secular character, and was included in the process of interaction with the cultures of other countries. Main trends in literature.

1. In the literature of the 18th century. The direction of classicism, guided by ancient artistic examples and civic virtues, triumphed. Its brightest representatives were M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky, G. Derzhavin, A. Kantemir, D. Fonvizin and others.

2. At the end of the century it was replaced by sentimentalism, which turned to the experiences and feelings of the individual (“ Poor Lisa"N. Karamzina).

Architecture

The construction of the new capital, St. Petersburg, according to a plan in accordance with a holistic urban planning plan and Western models, became a new stage in the development of Russian architecture. The face of the young capital was determined by the buildings of D. Trezzini (the building of the Twelve Colleges, the Peter and Paul Cathedral). In the middle of the century, the fashion for Baroque began, of which B. Rastrelli is considered a classic (Winter Palace and Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, Grand Palace in Peterhof, Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, etc.), the creator of brilliant and magnificent buildings. Passion for ancient art of the second half of the 18th century. found expression in strict, restrained, mathematically precise, noble classicism. Its pinnacle was the buildings of C. Cameron, V. Bazhenov, and M. Kazakov.

Painting and sculpture

Associated with classicism outstanding achievements sculptures such as “The Bronze Horseman” by E.M. Falcon horse, monument to Suvorov by M. Kozlovsky, monument to Minin and Pozharsky by I. Martos. Favorite genre of Russian painters of the 18th century. becomes a portrait. I. Nikitin, I. Argunov, D. Levitsky, F. Rokotov, V. Borovikovsky worked in this genre. Both historical (A. Losenko) and landscape (S. Shchedrin) painting received development. In 1757, on the initiative of I.I. Shuvalov, the Academy of Arts was founded.

Theater

In 1756, the first professional theater opened in St. Petersburg. Its basis was the theater troupe of F. Volkov, created in 1750 in Yaroslavl. The most famous composer of Russia in the 18th century. was D. Bortnyansky.

Education and science

In the 18th century In Russia, the system of secular education is developing. The first school to open was the school of “mathematical and navigational” sciences in Moscow (1701). Later, engineering, medical, mining, shipbuilding schools, as well as “digital schools” of primary education were formed. In 1724, Peter I signed a decree establishing the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

In 1755 on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow University was opened.

In 1783 The Russian Academy of Sciences was created. Its first president was Countess E.R. Vorontsova-Dashkova.

The achievements of Russian science are significant, represented by the names of M. Lomonosov (physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, metallurgy, philology, history), L. Euler (mathematics), S. Krasheninnikov (geography), A. Bolotov (agronomy and soil science), V. Tatishchev, I. Boltin (history), Y. Kozelsky and S. Desnitsky (legislation), etc. Outstanding inventors were A. Nartov (lathe), I. Polzunov (the world's first steam engine), I.P. Kulibin (optical instruments, project of a single-arch bridge across the Neva).

Introduction

“The Age of Reason and Enlightenment” - this is how the great thinkers of the 18th century, the heralds of new revolutionary ideas, spoke about their time. Into world history XVIII culture The century entered as an era of great ideological and socio-historical shifts, an acute struggle against feudal-monarchical foundations and religious dogmatism. The spread of the materialistic worldview and the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom were clearly reflected in philosophy, science, literature, and in the educational activities of the greatest philosophers, scientists, and writers of that time - Diderot and Holbach, Voltaire and Rousseau, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, Lomonosov and Radishchev.

Russian culture, which experienced a significant turning point at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, is also entering a new period. After a long time of forced cultural isolation due to the three-century Mongol conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, which tried to protect Rus' from everything “heretical”, “Western” (including education, morals, forms of cultural life), Russian art is entering the path of pan-European development and is gradually freed from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of a new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic dogmas of religious morality. "Secular" art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civic education, in the formation of new foundations of the country's social life. And at the same time, Russian culture of the 18th century did not reject its past.

While joining the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on indigenous Russian traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art. It was precisely because of this deep continuity that during the 18th century Russia was able not only to take an active part in the general process of the movement of world culture, but also to create its own national schools, firmly established in literature and poetry, in architecture and painting, in theater and music.

By the end of the century, Russian art achieved enormous success.

General assessment of Russian culture of the 18th century

The significance of the shifts that have occurred in Russian culture is evidenced by the fact that for the first time in the 18th century, secular, non-church music left the realm of oral tradition and acquired the significance of high professional art.

The intensive growth of Russian culture in the 18th century was largely due to major transformations in all areas of the life of Russian society carried out in the era of Peter I.

Peter's reforms radically changed the entire structure of cultural and social life in Russia. The old “Domostroevsky” customs of the medieval church-scholastic worldview are collapsing.

The political and cultural achievements of Peter the Great's era helped to strengthen the people's sense of national pride, consciousness of the greatness and power of the Russian state.

An invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture of the 18th century was made by Russian musicians - composers, performers, opera artists, most of them came from the people's environment. They were faced with tasks of enormous difficulty; within several decades they had to master the accumulated wealth of Western European music over centuries.

In the general path of historical development of Russian art XVIII century there are three main periods:

The first quarter of a century associated with Peter's reforms;

The era of the 30-60s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression;

The last third of the century (starting from the mid-60s), marked by major social changes, aggravation social contradictions, a noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

Education

On the verge of the 19th century. in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. These figures show the rise of literacy in Russia and at the same time its lag in comparison with Western Europe: in England at the end of the 18th century. counted in only Sunday schools more than 250 thousand students, and in France the number of primary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, on average, only two people out of a thousand studied.

The social composition of students in secondary schools was extremely varied. In public schools, children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated. The age composition of students was also different - both children and 22-year-old men studied in the same classes.

Common textbooks in schools were the alphabet, F. Prokopovich’s book “First Teaching to Youths,” “Arithmetic” by L. F. Magnitsky and “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky, a book of hours and a psalter. Mandatory curricula there was none; the duration of training ranged from three to five years. Those who completed the course were able to read, write, and knew basic information from arithmetic and geometry.

A significant role in the development of education in Russia was played by the so-called soldiers' schools - general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and continuers of digital schools of Peter the Great's time. This is the earliest, most democratic elementary school of that time, teaching not only reading, writing, arithmetic, but also geometry, fortification, and artillery. It is no coincidence that in the second half of the 18th century. a retired soldier, along with a sexton, becomes a literacy teacher both in the village and in the city - let us remember the retired sergeant Tsyfirkin, honest and selfless, who tried in vain to teach Mitrofanushka “tsyfir wisdom.” Soldiers' children made up the bulk of students at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. National military schools, opened in the second half of the 18th century, also belonged to the soldier type. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).

The second type of schools in Russia in the 18th century were closed educational institutions for the nobility: private boarding houses, gentry corps, institutes for noble maidens, etc., in total more than 60 educational institutions, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Although the gentry corps (Land, Naval, Artillery, Engineering) trained mainly officers for the army and navy, they provided a general education that was broad for that time. The first Russian actors, the Volkov brothers and the playwright Sumarokov, studied there; students participated in performances of the court theater. Noble boarding schools were also class-based educational institutions - private and public: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. They produced well-educated nobles who accepted the ideology of their class. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government: 100 thousand rubles were allocated for one Smolny Institute. per year, while 10 thousand rubles were given to all public schools. to the province, and this money went not only to public education, but also to the needs of “public charity” - hospitals, almshouses, etc.

The third type of educational institutions includes theological seminaries and schools. There were 66 of them, with 20,393 students studying there (only Orthodox schools are meant). These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; Commoners, as a rule, were not accepted into them. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the tsar, but seminary students also received general education and often became agents of literacy in their parishes. A small number (about two dozen) of special schools (mining, medical, navigating, land surveying, commercial, etc.), as well as the Academy of Arts founded in 1757, represented the fourth type of educational institutions. Although only about 1.5 thousand people studied in them, they played an important role in training specialists, which Russia especially needed at that time.

Finally, the training of specialists was also carried out through universities - Academic, established in 1725 under the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 at the initiative of Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually operated as a university since the 80s of the 18th century. Students of the philosophical, law and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to the sciences in their specialty, also studied Latin, foreign languages and Russian literature.

Moscow University was a major cultural center. He published the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti and had his own printing house; Various literary and scientific societies worked under him. From the walls of the university came D. I. Fonvizin, later A. S. Griboyedov, P. Ya. Chaadaev, the future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. G. Kakhovsky.

It is necessary to soberly evaluate the results of the development of education in Russia in the 18th century. Noble Russia had an Academy of Sciences, a university, gymnasiums and other educational institutions, but the country's peasants and artisans for the most part remained illiterate. The school reform of 1786, so widely advertised by the government of Catherine II, was popular only in name, but in fact was of a purely class nature. We must not forget that the ideas of the “Enlightenment” were “the motto of tsarism in Europe.” However, the genius of the people was able to manifest itself not thanks to the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, but in spite of it. This is especially clearly seen in the example of M.V. Lomonosov.

Russian science. M. V. Lomonosov.

There is no need to talk in detail about the life of M.V. Lomonosov: from school everyone knows how this son of a Pomor fisherman secretly left his parents with a convoy for Moscow, endured severe poverty and hardship, but did not leave sciences, but became the first Russian academician, founded Moscow University and, according to the apt definition of A. S. Pushkin, “he himself was our first university.” He was a scientist of encyclopedic knowledge, one of the founders of modern natural science, a physicist, chemist, astronomer, geologist, historian, poet and linguist.

The appearance of such a giant of science as Lomonosov in the conditions of serf Russia cannot be explained by a simple accident, a whim of nature, a whim of fate. The previous development of Russian society prepared the great achievements of the 18th century, when Russian science, freeing itself from the shackles of the Middle Ages, experienced a kind of Renaissance. F. Engels characterized the Renaissance as an era “which needed titans and which gave birth to titans in strength of thought, passion and character, in versatility and learning.” Russian science of the 18th century. also needed such titans, and it is no coincidence that it was in the Russian Academy that physicist and chemist Lomonosov, mathematicians Euler and Bernoulli glorified their names with discoveries of world significance.

The research of foreign scientists invited to the St. Petersburg Academy contributed to the development of Russian and world science. But it was not their piles and not the efforts of the “enlightened monarch” that Russian science was created. It was created by the Russian people, people of “various ranks and titles.” Peasants M.V. Lomonosov and M.E. Golovin (mathematician), soldiers' children I.I. Lepekhin, S.P. Krasheninnikov and V.F. Zuev were among the first Russian academicians; turner of the Navigation school A.K. Nartov, hydraulic engineer and Kalmyk builder M.I. Serdyukov, the first Russian heating engineer, creator of the “fire-acting machine”, soldier’s son I.I. Polzunov, “Nizhny Novgorod townsman”, mechanic of the Academy of Sciences I.P. Kulibin are the true creators of science and new technology in serf Russia.

The achievements of Russian scientific thought were significant, and among them the brilliant guesses and discoveries of M. V. Lomonosov especially stand out. Relying on living practice, experience, and materialistically assessing all the phenomena of the surrounding world, Lomonosov strove for deep theoretical generalizations and knowledge of the secrets of nature. He developed the atomic-molecular hypothesis of the structure of matter and became one of the founders of chemical atomism and physical chemistry. The universal law of conservation of matter and motion, discovered by Lomonosov, is of great importance for all natural science, as well as for materialist philosophy. Lomonosov's works in the field of geology provided a correct explanation of the reasons for the uplift of continents and mountain building, the secular oscillatory movements of the Earth; The scientist laid the foundations of the comparative historical method in geology. From the deep bowels of the Earth, “where nature forbids hands and eyes to reach” and where one has to “penetrate with the mind,” Lomonosov turns to the distant stars; world space, “the vastness of immeasurable places” attracts him both as a scientist and as a poet. Lomonosov's discovery of the atmosphere on Venus led to the creation of a new science - astrophysics; The “night scope” he invented is now used in the world of marine binoculars and searchlight scopes.

M.V. Lomonosov also acted as an innovative scientist in the field of social sciences. He was not a professional historian, but his historical works rightfully occupy a prominent place in Russian science. He fought the theory of Bayer and Miller about the Norman origin of Rus', based on a critical study of historical sources, he created a general work “Ancient Russian History”, in which he wrote that the history of our Motherland does not begin with the calling of the Varangians, but that the Russian people and language extend to “ deep antiquity." Russian history is given by Lomonosov against the background of universal history.

The reform of Russian versification, begun by V.K. Tredyakovsky, was completed by Lomonosov, who closely connected the issues of poetry with the development of the Russian language. He created textbooks on rhetoric and grammar, he prepared the reform of Russian stylistics, which was later carried out by A. S. Pushkin. Lomonosov also did a lot for the development of Russian art. He revived what had been forgotten since the 12th century. the art of mosaic, contributed to the promotion of such prominent artists and sculptors as F. S. Rokotov and F. I. Shubin.

Lomonosov's works were far ahead of his time; all the greatness of the scientific feat of this “Arkhangelsk man” was fully realized much later. But even during Lomonosov’s lifetime, his works became famous abroad; he was elected a member of the Swedish and an honorary member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. The great mathematician L. Euler called him “a man of genius who, with his knowledge, brings credit to the academy as much as to all science.”

Lomonosov was not alone. The discoveries of a number of Russian scientists constituted the golden contribution of Russian science to the world. The founder of the Russian mineralogical school, the son of the court musician V. M. Severgin did a lot to develop Lomonosov’s ideas in mineralogy and geology. Through the works of Russian scientists in the 18th century. Siberia was explored. “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” by S.P. Krasheninnikov was translated into four European languages. The names of S.I. Chelyuskin and the Laptev brothers forever remained on the geographical maps of the North of our Motherland. The research of the outstanding naturalist, traveler and ethnographer I. I. Lepekhin opened up the riches of the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia for Russian science. A brief but expressive description from his life story: “He was quick-witted, firm in his judgments, precise in his research, true in his observations.”

The Academy of Sciences in the 60-70s conducted five expeditions that explored vast territories. In order to more clearly imagine the activities of these expeditions and their significance for science, let us dwell on one of them, led by Academician I. I. Lepekhin. In 1768, the expedition headed down the Volga to Astrakhan, explored the Orenburg steppes, turned north along the Ural ridge, penetrated the Vychegda region, the Northern Dvina and reached Arkhangelsk. Having walked along the ocean coast, she returned to St. Petersburg through the Olonets region in December 1772.

The expedition kept careful notes, which formed the basis of Lepekhin’s “Daily Notes.” We find here a description of the animal and plant world, mines and factories, sights of cities and villages, customs and life of peoples. Lepekhin provided his research with drawings. The name of Academician Lepekhin became famous not only in Russia, but also abroad. In 1767 he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of Strasbourg, and in 1776 he became a member of the Berlin Society of Natural Scientists. Lepekhin’s “Notes” were unlike many others scientific essays of that time, written in Russian, and not in Latin or German. Lepekhin was also involved in teaching activities. For 16 years he was an inspector of an academic gymnasium and devoted a lot of time and effort to caring for its students. While developing the materials of his expedition, Lepekhin at the same time performed a number of other duties at the Academy of Sciences: he was a member of the commission for publishing translations, led the academic publication of Lomonosov’s works, and participated in the compilation of an etymological dictionary.

In the second half of the 18th century. The foundations of scientific biology in Russia are laid. In 1793, the first medical journal in Russia was published - “St. Petersburg Medical Gazette”.

Second quarter of the 18th century. is the time of formation of historical science in our country. The collection and publication of historical sources begins. The largest noble historian of this time, V.N. Tatishchev, is working on his “Russian History,” in which he makes an attempt to coherently present the events of Russian history from a noble point of view. Tatishchev’s work was used in the already mentioned “Ancient Russian History” by M.V. Lomonosov, and M.M. Shcherbatov also proceeded from it, creating in the 70s of the 18th century. his “Russian History from Ancient Times.” Shcherbatov’s “History” is imbued with the desire to glorify the nobility, to justify serfdom and noble privileges. Frightened by the Peasant War led by E.I. Pugachev, the author condemns popular movements, although he understands their inevitability. Another noble historian, I.N. Boltin, a thoughtful and insightful scientist and critic, studied the history of not only the nobility, but also the merchants, clergy, and artisans. In his works, he exalted the serf system, the autocratic power of the tsar and the power of landowners over serfs.

Science in Russia in the 18th century. developed as part of world science. Russian scientists not only creatively perceived the achievements of Western European scientists, but also exerted an ever-increasing influence on world scientific thought. The general level of development of science in Russia was lower than in Western Europe, but higher value acquires each new achievement. The publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences were known to scientists from other countries. Abroad they were closely watching scientific life St. Petersburg. When the Russian physicist G.V. Richman tragically died from a lightning strike, responses to his death appeared in Germany, England and France, describing the experiences of the deceased.

Outstanding figures of foreign science were elected honorary members of the St. Petersburg Academy - materialist philosopher D. Diderot, French naturalist J. Buffon, American scientist and revolutionary W. Franklin.

However, the successes of Russian education and science did not become the property of the working masses. The masses were cut off from the achievements of culture and lived with interests far removed from it. The autocracy was afraid of the spread of knowledge. “The mob should not be given an education, since it will know as much as you and I, it will not obey us to the extent that it obeys now,” wrote Catherine II to Field Marshal P.S. Saltykov.

The people expressed their socio-political views and artistic ideas in oral literature and applied art.

18th century music

The Peter the Great era marked the beginning of the development secular music new type. The creativity of this time is still very insignificant: it is limited mainly to the simplest genres of applied music - military, table, dance.

Military bands play on the streets of the new capital - St. Petersburg; Assemblies with dances are held in the palace; music is heard at ceremonial celebrations, at military parades, and on theater stages. The construction of a new “Russian state” persistently required new, special, specific forms of music-making.

The new function of musical art was especially fully manifested in the genres of ceremonial and ceremonial music.

In honor of Peter I and his commanders, specially composed chants were performed, called “panegyric” or “viat” cants.

In musical and poetic terms, panegyric cants were a typical expression of the heroic-patriotic sentiments of Peter the Great's era.

They gave birth to a special style of solemnly lush, anthemic choral music, a style that received its highest culmination in choral concerts, cantatas and oratorios at the end of the century.

Dance genres were especially popular.

The dances of Peter the Great's assemblies - minuet, polonaise, anglaise - were firmly rooted on Russian soil, and some of them, primarily the minuet, became favorites in noble society.

The musical repertoire of Peter the Great's assemblies was quite varied.

In the last years of Peter's reign, musical entertainment at court took on a different character.

Gradually, the most educated representatives of the Russian aristocracy began to become involved in music. Some of them were proficient in the art of playing the clavichord, violin and flute. At court, gallant songs of love and lyrical content (“arias”), performed to the accompaniment of a harpsichord, flute or violin, became fashionable.

Music also occupied a prominent place in the theater. The first years of the reign of Peter I marked the beginning of the active development of theatrical life in Russia. For the first time, the theater was accessible to a relatively wide range of spectators. Instrumental music was a constant participant in all performances. Stage productions apparently required a fairly large group of musicians.

Having begun its existence in the first years of the reign of Peter I, the Russian theater continued to grow and develop throughout the 18th century. The theater becomes an important center musical life in the post-Petrine era, when art was gaining ever wider public recognition.

The era of the 30-60s of the 18th century was marked by the growth of national self-awareness and the strengthening of national cultural traditions. The activities of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, the first Russian scientist on a global scale, were of great importance. Russian literature grew and strengthened; The poetry of Russian classicism flourished, represented in the works of the same Lomonosov and his closest contemporaries V.K. Trediakovsky and A.P. Sumarokov. The successes of Russian art were clearly manifested in the work of the famous architect V.V. Rastrelli, in the portrait painting of A.P. Losenko, A.P. Antropov and I.P. Argunov.

In the period of the 30-40s, music gradually left the sphere of applied art on an independent path of development. Mastering complex musical genres: opera, cantata, sonata, suite. Musical instruments, including the clavichord, violin and harp, are becoming increasingly widespread in noble life. Chamber concerts are held at the court and in the houses of noble nobles. Choirs, orchestras and opera troupes are formed, Russian musicians master performing skills. Thus, the developing traditions of everyday and concert music-making prepared the ground for the subsequent emergence of the Russian school of composition.

The main genre characterizing the development of musical art in the 18th century in Russia was opera. It is not surprising that it was in the opera genre that the creative capabilities of Russian composers of the 18th century subsequently manifested themselves most clearly.

Along with opera, they are gaining popularity in Russia. various genres chamber music. In the mid-18th century, chamber concerts at court became commonplace.

Chamber music playing enjoyed great success in aristocratic amateur circles. By this time, the role of the court orchestra had grown noticeably.

In the early 60s, the orchestra was divided into two independent groups of musicians - performers of opera, symphony and ballroom music. Such differentiation was an undoubted sign of the growth of performing forces.

It is no coincidence that such gifted Russian composers as V.A. Pashkevich and I.A. emerged from among the musicians of the court orchestra at the end of the century. Khandoshkin.

The last third of the 18th century is characterized by significant democratization of musical and social life. Theatrical life goes far beyond the boundaries of court and aristocratic life. Music education, music printing and music publishing are developing. Music becomes more common wide circles Russian society: home music playing is becoming widespread in small-scale and urban bourgeois environments.

The leading role in the musical life of Russia still belongs to the opera theater. However, the development of musical theater by this time was taking on a new direction: both the operatic repertoire and the composition of the audience were changing.

Of great importance for the development of the opera genre in Russia were the successes of the domestic drama theater. Theater life reached a great rise in the period 1770 - 1780, during the era of the activities of the leading Russian playwrights Fonvizin, Nikolaev, Knyazhin, Kapnist. In 1776, the Petrovsky Theater was opened in Moscow, on the basis of which the Bolshoi Theater subsequently arose.

Along with the city "free" theaters, at the end of the 18th century, a network of serf theaters scattered throughout Russia was widely deployed.

The theaters of Count N.P. Sheremetev in his Kuskovo and Ostankino estates near Moscow were especially widely known.

The Sheremetyev Theater was primarily an opera house, and the basis of the repertoire was the latest theatrical "news" - comic operas by French and Italian composers. On this stage they walked best works Paisiello, Piccini, Gretry and Monsin.

And in the leading roles shone the famous “first singer” of the Sheremetev theater Praskovya Ivanovna Kovaleva (on stage - Parasha Zhemchugova, 1768-1803), whose name entered folk legends and was covered in legendary glory.

A special type of performance, the music of horn orchestras, enjoyed wide popularity in everyday life in feudal Russia.

At the end of the 18th century, horn orchestras also performed a fairly wide concert repertoire of classical music (including symphonies by Haydn and Mozart) and even took part in opera performances.

By the end of the 18th century, concert life became more and more systematic.

Oratorio and choral concerts were a great success among the public. At the same time, solo concerts were also held.

The performances of harpsichordists and organists W. Palschau, I. Gessler, A. Sartori, who were also known in Russia for their teaching activities, enjoyed great success.

Successes in music education and theater and concert life

created a solid foundation for the further growth of musical culture. If at the beginning of the century home music-making flourished only in a narrow circle of the Russian aristocracy and was largely a tribute to “foreign taste,” now it has become a necessity.

Despite class restrictions, ever wider sections of the population are drawn to the art of music, and even representatives of the serf class now constitute almost the main group of professional musicians. By the end of the 18th century, we can talk about fully established, stable national traditions in the field of musical performance, opera house, concert life.

Opera XVIII century.

Among the various genres of professional music of the late 18th century, opera ranks first. It is opera in this era that becomes the most developed, the most professional and at the same time the most in mass form musical creativity. Opera attracts both a wide audience and the best creative forces. The opera evokes lively responses in public opinion, in poetry, literature and criticism. With great spontaneity and completeness, it reflects the advanced, democratic tendencies of Russian art.

The opera, like the comedy, touched upon the most acute, fundamental problems of Russian reality, and first of all the issue of social inequality, the difficult, powerless situation of the serf peasantry.

Russian opera of the 18th century is, first of all, a realistic opera-comedy of everyday life, closely connected with the entire structure of Russian social life.

On the opera stage at the end of the 18th century there appears a gallery of typical characters long familiar to the viewer from the comedies of that time.

The opera, in its own way, aptly ridiculed the backward morals of Russian society, castigated the vices of cattle and simpletons.

The critical, accusatory orientation determines the main, basic tendency of the realistic opera-comedy of the 18th century, which entered the circle of the most significant, progressive phenomena of Russian art of the Radishchev era.

The young art of opera of the 18th century clearly demonstrates the amazing diversity of development paths of the Russian school of composition.

Opera, with all the complexity and diversity of its forms, nourished the entire Russian professional music contributed to the development of other genres.

The foundations of both Russian symphonism and Russian choral classics were rooted in it. Closely related to folk songs and everyday romance, it also influenced professional vocal lyrics.

The active development of operatic dramaturgy in the 18th century largely determined in advance the important role that it was destined to play. opera genre in the works of classical composers.

Folk art of the 18th century

Rebellious poetic creativity has invariably accompanied the people throughout their history, being an artistic response to the major events of reality. In different eras, folk art took different forms. For the 18th century. characterized by the emergence of new themes and images brought to life by changed historical conditions.

Central place in oral folk art of the 18th century. are occupied by songs and legends about Pugachev. No wonder A.S. Pushkin valued in them “the stamp of living modernity.” These songs were created during the battles of the rebels with the Tsarist troops. The people see in Pugachev not a “state thief, monster, villain and impostor,” as the tsar’s manifestos called him, but a people’s king, peasant protector and avenger. In folk legends, Pugachev is a hero, a hero-commander, vitally connected with the people and opposed to the nobility; he became the leader of the rebels who

We thought of a just cause,

The cause is right, I have an honest thought:

We are noble gentlemen - on strings,

We are clerks and yarygs - on collars,

We are breeders - for birch trees.

The people did not even believe Pugachev’s death - so great was the confidence in his strength. Pugachev’s feat was glorified not only by Russians: the Bashkirs, Mordovians, Tatars, and Udmurts saw in him an exponent of people’s aspirations. Together with Pugachev, his comrade-in-arms Salavat Yulaev is also glorified in Bashkir songs.

In addition to songs about Pugachev, in the 18th century. previously created songs about Razin, about “ good fellows, free people." This is the famous song “Don’t make noise, mother green oak tree.”

In the 18th century traditional genres continued to exist widely folk art- epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, everyday songs, etc. It cannot be considered an accident that in the 18th century. proverbs were written down that reflect the idea of ​​will: “will is for the master, and bondage is for the slave”, “will does not want bondage”, “in the field there is will”.

In handwritten democratic literature XVIII V. works of folk art penetrated, which could not be published due to censorship slingshots. Such is the “Lament of the Serfs,” which, through expressive comparisons, reveals the “ferocity” of the bar and the servile position of the serfs. “Wherever you go, there are gentlemen everywhere,” the unknown author of “Lamentation” sadly exclaims; death is the only deliverance from a difficult fate. The difficult life of the starving servants was reflected in the peasant “Tale of the Pakhrinskaya Village of Kamkina”. Either a complaint or bitter laughter through tears can be heard in handwritten parodies of official documents. In “Deaf Passport” the author speaks with bitterness about the impossibility of a runaway peasant finding a job; Poverty pushes him onto the path of robbery and robbery. The hard service of a soldier is vividly described in handwritten stories of a soldier's origin - in a parody petition to God and in the "Tale of Sorrows." Folk satire also penetrates into popular prints - such is the picture “The Bull Didn’t Want to Be a Bull,” where the people’s dreams of social justice are expressed in an allegorical form.

The main motives of oral folk drama- a sharp denunciation of the villainous king (the drama “Tsar Maximilian”), a servant’s mockery of a ruined nobleman (“The Imaginary Master”), calls for reprisals against the nobles (“The Boat”). This genre of oral folk art reflected the class contradictions of that time in an intelligible playful form.

Russian democratic theater of the 18th century. also showed the nobles and clergy in their true unsightly form, satirically exposed the stupidity of a judicial official, the greed and ignorance of a foreign charlatan doctor, the stupidity and arrogance of a parasite master. Folk theater is characterized by sharp grotesqueness in the depiction of characters, expressiveness of gesture and dialogue, and frequent improvisation of the text using general political and local everyday themes. These folk performances served as one of the national foundations of Russian everyday and satirical drama in the second half of the 18th century.

The artistic tastes of the working people are vividly embodied in works of applied art. The works of folk artists contain images of folk life, satirical sketches of representatives of the ruling classes, fairy-tale images, floral and geometric patterns.

Spinning wheels, looms, etc. were decorated with carvings or paintings. Painted children's toys of the 18th century. in a grotesque form they ridicule the cutesy, pampered lady, the self-satisfied merchant, the fashionable nobleman. Images of animals and birds (rooster, falcon, horse, swan, etc.) can be found on all kinds of household items, furniture, gingerbread boards, etc. The peasant’s dishes were poor, but how lovingly the clay and wooden bowls and ladles were painted , what fine carvings the birch bark boxes and wooden boxes are covered with, how much strict taste is put into patterned fabrics, thin lace and colorful embroideries!

Culture of the nobility.

Classicism

Russian culture of the second half of the 18th century. reflects the characteristics of a rising nation. The social role of fiction is increasing, which is gradually losing its former anonymous and handwritten character. Progressive writers are active fighters for the ideas of enlightenment; The first literary magazines appear.

Although Russian writers and artists turned to the experience of Western European classicism, which was ahead of them in the development, they sought to give this movement features of national originality. Lomonosov said it well: “In order not to introduce anything objectionable, and not to leave anything good, you need to look at who is better to follow and in what.”

Unlike Western European classicism, Russian classicism, full of the pathos of citizenship, had strong educational tendencies and a sharp accusatory satirical stream.

In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Tredyakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov. A.D. Kantemir was the founder of Russian classicism, the founder of the most vital real-satirical direction in it - such are his famous satires. V.K. Tredyakovsky, with his theoretical works, contributed to the establishment of classicism, but in his poetic works the new ideological content did not find a corresponding artistic form. This was achieved in the genre of a solemn and philosophical ode by M.V. Lomonosov, for whom both this form and the appeal to the monarch were the occasion for promoting the idea of ​​national cultural progress.

The traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves in a different way in the works of A.P. Sumarokov and his school (M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov Ya.B. Knyazhnin, etc.), which defended the idea of ​​​​the inseparability of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism. In his tragedies, under the influence of the reality of that time, he often turns to the theme of the uprising against tsarism, for example, in the political tragedy “Dmitry the Pretender”. In his work, Sumarokov pursued social and educational goals, preaching high civic feelings and noble deeds; “The property of comedy is to correct morals through mockery,” wrote A.P. Sumarokov.

Since the 70s of the 18th century. Russian classicism in literature is experiencing a crisis; the aggravation of social contradictions and class struggle leads to the penetration of new themes and sentiments into literature. Thus, republican motifs appeared in Ya. B. Knyazhnin’s tragedy “Vadim Novgorodsky”. But at the same time, civil themes are pushed aside by love lyrics. From the leading literary movement, classicism becomes the literature of narrow reactionary-serfdom circles.

Classicism is gaining a dominant position in architecture and fine arts. He determined the appearance of St. Petersburg, where V. I. Bazhenov, A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, as well as foreign architects - G. Cameron, D. Quarenghi and others built. Russian architects successfully solved the most important problems of urban planning; their buildings are distinguished by the clarity and logic of their design: rigor and laconicism were combined in their work with a desire for monumental ceremonial images. Of particular note is the old building of the Library named after V.I. Lenin (the former house of P.E. Pashkov) in Moscow - the highest achievement of Bazhenov’s creativity, a brilliant example of classicism, perfect in architectural image and ingenuity in decoration. The ensembles and public buildings created by Russian architects of the second half of the 18th century, for example, the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (M. F. Kazakov), the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg (I. E. Starev) are imbued with patriotic pride, ideas of triumph and power of Russia. The majestic simplicity and originality of the composition are combined with compact volumes, light colors, and rich decoration of the building facade and fence.

A characteristic feature of Russian classicism in sculpture was warmth and humanity. It is enough to look at the tombstone of N. M. Golitsyna in the Donskoy Monastery by F. G. Gordeev to feel the sublime sadness and wise restraint of quiet grief, expressed with the greatest sincerity. Russian masters created examples of monumental sculpture, distinguished by their majestic character, humanism of images, brevity and generality. One of the most remarkable monuments of this era is the monument to Peter I by E.-M. Falcone. He was a foreigner, but the monument he created should be considered within the framework of Russian culture, which predetermined the assessment of Peter I and the interpretation of his sculptural image. The figure of Peter, stretching his hand forward, is rhythmically connected with a horse, and the entire statue is connected with a powerful pedestal, a stone rock weighing 80 thousand pounds. Depth of thought, heroic interpretation of the image, pathos artistic design make “The Bronze Horseman” the poetry of history, a symbol of the great historical vocation of Russia.

Classicism is also reflected in historical painting. Noteworthy are the paintings by A. P. Losenko “Vladimir and Rogneda” and “Farewell of Hector to Andromache”, the painting by G. I. Ugryumov “The Test of the Strength of Jan Usmar”. However, painting was more affected by the limitations of classicism - the abstract ideal nature of the images, the conventionality of color, imitation of the poses and gestures of ancient models.

Russian theatrical classicism, which developed by the mid-18th century, was founded by the dramaturgy of Lomonosov and Sumarokov, who established national-patriotic themes and educational trends in the theater. The spread of classicism in theatrical art is associated with the emergence in St. Petersburg in 1756 of the state public professional theater headed by the Russian actor F. G. Volkov. The largest actors of Russian theatrical classicism were also I. A. Dmitrevsky, P. A. Plavilshchikov, T. M. Troepolskaya. Their playing was distinguished by subtle skill in revealing passions and thoughts, and expressiveness of recitation. A master of great stage temperament, F. G. Volkov left behind the memory of an inspired artist in the heroic images of the freedom-loving characters of Sumarokov’s tragedy, who did not leave the stage at that time.

Sentimentalism

Classicism was not the only trend of noble culture in the Age of Enlightenment. It was replaced by sentimentalism. He brought with him attention to the feelings and interests of the common man, mainly from the “middle” class. Tragedy was replaced by “tearful bourgeois drama” and comic opera. The sublime language of tragic heroes ceases to excite listeners, who greet with delight the “mixing of fun with sorrow in the actions” and shed tears over sensitive stories. The creator of the genre of sentimental story and sentimental journey in Russian literature, N. M. Karamzin sought to convey the subtle and deep experiences of ordinary people. However, in his works, in a conservative spirit, he depicted the idyllic relationship between landowners and peasants. N. M. Karamzin was afraid of the peasants' uprising, the ghost of the French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century. and therefore came to terms with feudal reality.

The influence of sentimentalism was also reflected in the architecture, especially in the park, with various “grottoes of solitude”, mysterious pavilions hidden in the twilight, and in the stylization of “wild” nature. One of the works of the agronomist and noble memoirist A. T. Bolotov is called: “Some general notes about tender melancholic gardens.” Most of the estates of the 18th century. was created with the participation or designs of serf architects and gardeners.

In painting, sentimentalism was reflected in “sensitive” subjects, in the sugary-sweet interpretation of peasant images, in the pastoral depiction of nature. In M. M. Ivanov’s painting “Milking a Cow,” the artist’s entire attention is focused not on the peasants (his images don’t even look like them!), but on the gentle sheep, on the idyllic picture of peaceful rural life. Looking at this canvas, one would not think that it was written in 1772 - on the eve of the Peasant War. Sentimental themes are also strong in the works of landscape painter S. F. Shchedrin, who painted traditional “landscapes with cattle,” peasant huts of fantastic architecture and idyllic “rural amusements” of shepherds and shepherdesses.

One of the prominent sentimentalists in portrait painting was V. L. Borovikovsky. The female images he created (for example, the portrait of M. I. Lopukhina) are full of tender elegiac feelings and idyllic moods.

The founder of sentimentalism in the Russian theater is the actor V. II. Pomerantsev. Theater of the 70-80s of the 18th century. often turned to pastoral operas and comedies. This is Maykov’s “Village Festival,” at which the touched peasants sing in chorus: “We have a lot in the field and live according to our will, you are our master and father! »

The same is true of Kheraskov’s “tearful dramas” with heartbreaking scenes and an idyllic ending, with the reward of virtue and the exposure of vice.

A sentimental-idyllic “sensibility” penetrated into music. The romance “The Gray Dove Moans” (words by I. I. Dmitriev, music by F. M. Dubyansky) outlived its creators for a long time, continuing into the 19th century. to disturb the hearts of merchants and tradeswomen.

Sentimentalism in Russian culture arose during the period of the formation of new, bourgeois relations in the depths of the feudal-serf system, and its struggle with classicism was a reflection of deep socio-economic processes. Therefore, despite all the political limitations of sentimentalism, it was a progressive movement for its time.

Conclusion

The eighteenth century in the field of culture and life in Russia is a century of deep social contrasts, the rise of education and science.

The 18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. Its genre structure, content, character, and means of artistic expression have changed. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. Back in the depths of the 17th century, in the times of Peter the Great, a process of “secularization” of Russian culture took place. In the formation and development of a secular culture of a pan-European type, it was impossible to rely on the old artistic cadres, for whom the new tasks were beyond their capabilities. Foreign masters invited to Russian service not only helped create new art, but also served as teachers of the Russian people. Another equally important way of receiving professional training was sending Russian craftsmen to study in Western Europe. Thus, many Russian masters received high training in France, Holland, Italy, England, and Germany.

Russian art, as we will see below, which continued to develop in the 18th century on new European principles, still remained an expressed national phenomenon with its own specific face, and this fact in itself is very significant.

However, unlike the previous period of time for culture big influence was exerted by the nobility, and the dominance of foreigners also continued.

During this period, Russian science and education continued to develop, although serfdom and autocracy greatly hindered this. Nevertheless, the tsarist government had to take some measures to spread education - this was required by the era.

In the development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Two trends are clearly visible. The first of them was manifested in a significant expansion of the network of educational institutions; the second was expressed in the strengthening of the influence of the principle of class on the organization of education.

The development of science is closely related to the spread of education. The need to know the laws of nature and increased interest in studying the country's resources were caused by economic needs.

List of used literature

1. " encyclopedic Dictionary Russian artist." Pedagogy. 1983

2. A. N. Petrov. “Russian architecture of the first half of the 18th century.” 1954.

3. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, - M.: 1975. Volumes 18,19,20,21.

4. V.V. Mavrodin “The Birth of a New Russia.”, M., 1998.

5. Essays on Russian culture. graduate School MSU 1990 B.A. Rybakov.

6. History of Russian music. T. 1. From ancient times to the mid-19th century. 1973. O. Levasheva, Y. Keldysh, A. Kandinsky.

7. Russian lira. “Essays on musical Russia.” 1971. Mironov A.G.

8. About Russian art. Collected works vol. 24. M., 1953. Gorky A.M.

9. At the origins of Russian theater. Kuzmin A.I. M. 1984.

10. Rybakova B. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the 18th century. M.: Higher school. 1983.

11. Krivorotov V. Milestones. The ups and downs of Russia’s special path // Knowledge is power. No. 8, 9. 1990

12. Anisimov E.V. The Birth of an Empire // book. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries. M.: Politizdat. 1991.

K. Marx And F. Engels. Works, vol. 22, p. 24.

K. Marx And F. Engels. Works, vol. 20, p. 346.

M. V. Lomonosov . Complete collection works, vol. 6. M.-L., 1952, p. 178.

The 18th century is a new stage in the history of Russia and in the development of Russian culture. Changes in the field of culture were largely due to socio-economic and political changes - primarily the maturation of the capitalist structure in the depths of feudalism and the completion of the formation of an absolute monarchy. The most important characteristic of Russian culture in the 18th century was its secular character; The secular culture of Russia is taking shape. During the period under review, the process of formation of national identity and national culture is actively underway; There has been a significant expansion of cultural contacts with European countries. An essential quality of the new culture was its openness. It gave her flexibility and receptivity to incorporating into her system the experience and results of the development of other cultures.

The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which affected all areas of life, but, perhaps, the most impressive were in the sphere of culture. They covered education, the organization of science, book publishing, printing, urban planning, architecture, even clothing and entertainment. The goal of all Peter's reforms was the Europeanization of Russian culture. At the same time, a number of cultural innovations were dictated by the practical tasks of developing trade and industry, restructuring the army and navy, and government structures.

We are talking about reforming the education system and training more qualified specialists. Already in 1699, the Pushkar School was founded in Moscow, and the Navigation School (mathematical and navigational sciences) was opened in the building of the Sukharev Tower. After the Navigation School (transformed into the Naval Academy in 1715), the Artillery (1701) and Engineering (1712) schools and the Medical School (1707) appeared. A school for training translators was created under the Ambassadorial Prikaz. During Peter's time, engineering, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and craft schools were also opened. In the province, primary education was carried out in three types of schools: digital - for the training of local officials; diocesan - preparing clergy; garrison - for training soldiers' children.

The development of secular education caused the appearance of new textbooks. The most famous is “Arithmetic, that is, the science of numbers” by Leonty Magnitsky, published in 1703. Russian students studied mathematics using it for half a century. In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil script instead of Church Slavonic. To print secular educational, scientific and specialized literature, new printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. During the reign of Peter I, over 600 book titles were published. The development of printing led to the emergence of an organized book trade, and in 1714 the first public library was opened in St. Petersburg, which laid the foundation for the library of the Academy of Sciences. Since 1702, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to be published in Russia.

The practical needs of the state dictated the need to develop science and technology. Great strides have been made in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of subsoil and minerals. Russian sailors and hydrographers did a lot to compile maps of the Azov, Caspian, Baltic and White seas. Expeditions were undertaken to Siberia, the Far East, Central Asia. In 1725, Peter I signed a decree sending the first Kamchatka naval expedition under the command of V.I. Bering and A.I. Chernigov (this expedition took place after the death of Peter I).

Geological research has acquired a wide scope. Searches were conducted for iron ore in the Urals and Siberia, coal, and oil deposits in the western and eastern regions of the country. The names of Russian inventors of the Peter the Great era are known: A. Nartov, Y. Batishchev, E. Nikonov and others. Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov(1693-1756), “personal turner” of Peter I, was an outstanding mechanic of his time. He improved coin making machines, improved the technique of drilling cannon barrels, and designed a device for raising and installing the Tsar Bell in the Moscow Kremlin. Of all his inventions, lathes stand out especially.

On the initiative of Peter I, a start was made in collecting scientific collections in Russia. In 1718, a decree was issued ordering the population to deliver to the Kunstkamera everything that was “very old and unusual.” In the Kunstkamera one could see skeletons of extinct animals, ancient manuscripts, ancient cannons and much more. The basis of the Kunstkamera collection was the anatomical collection brought by Peter I from Holland. In 1719, the Kunstkamera was opened to the public.

The result of the achievements of Peter the Great's time in the field of science and education was the creation (by decree of 1724) in St. Petersburg of the Academy of Sciences, opened after the death of Peter I in 1725. The Academy was created not only as a national scientific center, but also as a base for training scientific personnel. A university and a gymnasium were opened under her.

In the era of Peter the Great, urban planning underwent a transition to the regular development of cities, the creation of large architectural ensembles, mainly for civil, rather than religious purposes. The most striking example of this is the construction of St. Petersburg. The complex of buildings and structures of the Peter and Paul Fortress and Peter's Summer Palace, built by the famous Italian architect, became remarkable architectural monuments Domenino Trezzini. Domestic architects are also coming forward: M.G. Zemtsov(building of the Twelve Colleges), I.K. Korobov (Admiralty), I.P. Zarudny(Sukharev and Menshikov tower in Moscow).

The beginning of the 18th century was the time of the gradual establishment of secular painting, replacing icon painting. Unlike the Parsuns of the 17th century. portraits of the early 18th century were finally freed from the canon; artists strive to convey the individual traits and inner world of the characters. The outstanding portrait painters of that time were Ivan Nikitich Nikitin ( 1690 - 1742), who repeatedly painted portraits of Peter I, and Andrey Matveev (1701-1739).

A new phenomenon in Russian culture was the spread sculptural compositions. Since sculpture has not traditionally developed in Orthodox Russia, statues for palace and park ensembles were purchased abroad, mainly in Italy.

The first quarter of the 18th century was the time when theater transformed into a public spectacle with educational rather than entertainment purposes. The country's first public theater was opened in Moscow on Red Square in 1702. In the built "comedy mansion" German actors performed plays by foreign authors. Later, a theater arose, where performances on modern themes were staged and the victories of Russian weapons in the Northern War were glorified.

In the era of Peter I, all traditional ideas about the everyday life of Russian society underwent a radical change. The Tsar, by order of command, introduced barber shaving, European clothing, and the compulsory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms, set out in the translated book “The Honest Mirror of Youth.”

An important innovation of the Peter the Great era was the adoption of the Julian calendar in Russia. Since 1700, the beginning of the year began to be considered not from September 1, but from January 1, and the counting of years began to be carried out from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the Creation of the world, as was previously customary in Russia.

The patriarchal way of life gradually gave way to “secularism” and rationalism. In 1718, Peter I issued a decree on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. The law outlined the detailed schedule for holding assemblies. The use of foreign words, mainly French, in conversations was encouraged.

As a result of the reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century, great changes occurred in the culture of Russia. They affected not only science, the education system, art, but also the spiritual values ​​and appearance of representatives of the privileged class. However, the transformations practically did not affect the peasants and lower strata of the city. Moreover, Peter's "Europeanization" marked the beginning of a deep gap between the way of life of the people and the privileged strata. Many researchers talk about cultural conflict as a consequence of Peter's reforms. Misunderstanding, confrontation between two cultures - most important factor, which determined the development of Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries.

The foundation of the secular system of education and science laid by Peter I continued to be strengthened under his successors, although not with such intensity. The accumulation of knowledge and the growing needs of the state for qualified specialists posed new, more complex tasks in the field of education. In 1731, the Land Noble Cadet Corps was established - an estate-based military educational institution closed type. The corps trained not only future officers Russian army, but also civil officials; in addition to military disciplines, the program included foreign languages, geography, and jurisprudence. Subsequently, the Naval, Artillery, and Engineering Corps were formed. In other words, a system of class-based noble education is being formed (under Peter I, nobles could study together with people from other classes).

The St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences had two educational institutions - a gymnasium and a university. But the meager material resources, the unsuccessful selection of teachers from foreigners who did not speak Russian, the autocracy and unscrupulousness in financial matters of I. Schumacher, one of the leaders of the Academy of Sciences, negatively affected the quality of teaching and training of students. The fight against “Schumacherism,” as Lomonosov put it, was waged by many scientists, including the great Russian scientist. Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov(1711-1765) led the fight for improvement in the 40-50s of the 18th century educational activities Academy of Sciences and for the creation of the first Russian university in Moscow.

Moscow University, which opened in 1755, had three faculties: philosophy, which included physics, mathematics and literature departments, medicine and law. Characteristically, the university structure lacks a theological faculty, traditional for European educational institutions of this type. Thus, the emergence of secular education and secular schools in Russia culminated in the creation of a secular higher educational institution.

At Moscow University, Lomonosov's idea of ​​continuity between different levels of education was embodied: two gymnasiums were created at the university, one for children of the nobility, the other for children from other classes. From the very beginning, Moscow University also acted as a disseminator of scientific knowledge: it held public lectures, organized public debates, published scientific and educational literature.

Attempts to reform the education system were made in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II, considering herself an “enlightened monarch,” conceived the idea of ​​creating a “new breed of people.” The implementation of this task was entrusted I.I. Betsky. In 1764, the Empress approved the “General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth,” developed by Betsky. Based on the ideas of French educators, Betskoy believed that a child isolated from the family and transferred to the care of educators could grow up ideal person. Therefore, his project provided for the creation of closed boarding-type educational institutions that accept children at the age of 5-6 and graduate them into life by the age of 18-20. The class principle was strictly observed. Privileged cadet corps, “schools for noble maidens,” were intended for noble children. For commoners - a school at the Academy of Arts, educational homes in all provinces. Nothing was said about the education and upbringing of peasant children.

The planned creation of a “breed of new people” was undoubtedly a utopia and therefore could not be realized. However, in accordance with the project, a number of educational institutions were opened in Russia: a school at the Academy of Arts, educational homes in Moscow and St. Petersburg, a commercial school; cadet corps were transformed. The opening of a society of two hundred noble maidens in St. Petersburg (1764) marked the beginning of female education in Russia.

Catherine II, who continued to believe in the power of education, implemented another reform in education. In 1782-1786. In Russia, a school reform was carried out, creating a system of uniformly organized educational institutions with uniform curricula and common methodology. These were “public schools” - the main ones in provincial cities and small ones in districts. The first was a four-year school where, in addition to elementary disciplines, the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, natural science, architecture, mechanics and physics were taught. The second was a two-year school and provided basic knowledge. At the end of the 18th century in Russia there were 288 public schools, in which 22 thousand people studied.

Thus, in the 18th century a huge step forward was made compared to the previous period - a system of secular educational institutions was created. However, it should be noted that the majority of the people (primarily the peasantry) continued to remain outside the walls of schools, colleges, and universities.

The opening of the Academy of Sciences in 1725 was of key importance for the development of Russian science. In terms of its status, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was close to the Paris and Berlin academies, which enjoyed state support, however, the dependence of a scientific institution on state power in Russia was closer than in the West. The St. Petersburg Academy was actually subordinate to the Senate and suffered from bureaucratic interference in its internal affairs. Thus, for 35 years, the adviser to the Chancellery and the librarian of the Academy, I.D., enjoyed almost unlimited influence. Schumacher, who caused many obstacles in the work of M.V. Lomonosov and other scientists. At the same time, the Academy, with funds allocated from the state budget, was well equipped technically. It had a Kunstkamera, an observatory, a physics room, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, tool workshops, a printing house, and a library.

The Academy of Sciences concentrated major scientific forces: mathematicians L. Euler and D. Bernoulli, astronomer J. Delisle, physicists G. Richman and F. Epinus. A genius worked here for many years Leonard Euler(1707-1783), who came to Russia in 1727. He published over 460 books in the publications of the St. Petersburg Academy alone (and in total he created 800 books, textbooks, and articles). His scientific interests were wide: technology and machine theory, logic, the design of optical lenses, calculations of the movement of celestial bodies and much more. But almost 40% of his work is devoted to arithmetic, algebra and mathematical analysis. Euler's role in the history of Russian science is great. He supported Lomonosov in his fight against the “enemies of Russian science.” More than one generation of Russian mathematicians was brought up on his works.

The activities of the great 18th-century encyclopedist M.V. are associated with the Academy of Sciences. Lomonosov. There was probably no area of ​​science at that time that Lomonosov would not have worked on. According to A.S. Pushkin, “Lomonosov embraced all branches of education. The thirst for science was the strongest passion of this soul, filled with passions. A historian, rhetorician, mechanic, chemist, mineralogist, artist and poet, he experienced everything and penetrated everything.”

Lomonosov conducted research in various fields of physics. He studied the liquid, solid and gaseous states of bodies; conducted experiments on electricity and put forward a number of hypotheses about the nature of the electric charge in clouds. Observing the passage of Venus across the disk of the Sun in 1761, Lomonosov discovered the atmosphere on Venus. The scientist experimentally proved one of the basic laws of nature - the law of conservation of matter and motion. He decisively rejected the then widespread opinion about the existence of a special substance - caloric; the kinetic nature of heat was clear to him, and he came close to the concept of absolute zero.

Lomonosov was taller than many European scientists of that time. He consistently developed atomistic ideas and came close to the idea of ​​the molecular structure of chemical compounds. He first began to introduce physical research methods in chemistry and became the father of physical chemistry. He proclaimed the union of physics, chemistry and mathematics, which became a fact in the second half of the 19th century. Lomonosov had to overcome significant difficulties in his physical and mathematical experiments: he had to invent instruments for carrying out experiments and the research methods themselves. The devices were produced extremely slowly, and the research methods gave divergent results. Therefore, here, as in other areas scientific work Lomonosov, there are valuable thoughts and brilliant foresights of the paths along which the development of science should go, but the practical implementation of these thoughts and intentions does not produce results due to the complete absence of the necessary instruments, devices and research methods. His thoughts were ahead of practical possibilities.

Lomonosov developed, to one degree or another, almost all branches of science of that time. Other scientists working in Russia were not so encyclopedic, but they also worked on developing important theoretical and practical problems.

One of the most important tasks of Russian science continued to be a comprehensive study of the natural conditions of the country, the peoples inhabiting it, routes of communication, including the study of the Great Northern Sea Route. To study the country, the Academy of Sciences organized numerous scientific expeditions. The second Kamchatka expedition (1733-1743) led by captain-commander turned out to be especially fruitful Vitus Bering(1681-1741). Its results far exceeded the original goal - to find out whether Asia in the northeast is connected to America. During the expedition, the strait, named after the head of the expedition, Bering, and northwestern America were discovered, Kamchatka was comprehensively explored, the northern shores of Siberia were described, and the Kuril Islands and Northern Japan were plotted on a contour map. The scientists participating in the expedition summarized their observations in fundamental works: “Flora of Siberia” (I.G. Gmelin), “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (S.P. Krashenninkov).

The study of the country was continued by academic expeditions of 1768-1774, organized for the purpose of a comprehensive survey of the nature, population, economy, life and culture of Russian regions. Particularly significant results were achieved during research P.S. Pallas(1741-1811), covering the Volga-Oka basin, the Southern Urals, Kazakhstan, Siberia, as well as during research I.I. Lepekhina(1740-1802), who collected a wealth of material on the European part of Russia, Kazakhstan, and the coast of the Caspian Sea. Thanks to the works of these and other scientists in Russia, botany, zoology, and mineralogy received significant development. This contributed to the development of industry, Agriculture, trades, communications.

In turn, the development of industry and other sectors of the national economy stimulated scientific and technical thought. This was expressed in numerous inventions and improvements in machines, machine tools, and tools. The names of outstanding inventors of the 18th century are widely known. Self-taught mechanic Ivan Petrovich Kulibin(1735 - 1818) improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments, created a prototype of a searchlight (the so-called “mirror lamp”), a semaphore telegraph, an elevator, and a new clock mechanism. Kulibin's most fundamental work was the design of a single-arch wooden bridge across the Neva with a span of 298 meters. Despite the successful testing of the bridge model, the project was not implemented.

Another major inventor Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov(1728 - 1766), in 1763 he developed a project for a universal steam engine - the world's first two-cylinder continuous engine. In 1765, he built a steam engine, which, after a short period of operation after the death of the inventor, was stopped and then abandoned. These and other inventions could not be widely used in Russia with its technical and economic backwardness and the dominance of serfdom.

Of the humanities, history received the greatest development in the 18th century. The main achievements of historical thought of that time are associated with the activities of M.V. Lomonosov and V.N. Tatishcheva. Lomonosov was the first to raise the question of the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, led a polemic with the Normanists - German scientists G. Miller and Z. Bayer, who proved Scandinavian origin ancient Russian statehood. Lomonosov's work "The Brief Russian Chronicler" was the main history textbook in the 18th century. Vasily Nikolaevich Tatishchev(1686-1750) collected and presented extensive material on the political history of Russia, brought up to 1577. Tatishchev’s work “Russian History” was the first attempt at scientific coverage of Russian history (albeit framed in the form of a chronicle).

Along with the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, other centers of scientific thought operated in Russia. In 1783 The Russian Academy was established, the chairman of which was the princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova(1743 - 1810). This institution, which brought together outstanding writers and scientists, was conceived as a humanitarian research center, specializing mainly in the study of the Russian language. A six-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” was prepared, containing an explanation of 43 thousand words of the Russian language.

By the last third of the 18th century, a new, secular culture had reached its maturity, a significant accumulation of spiritual wealth had formed in the form of “objectified” results cultural activities. This is the new architectural appearance of cities and individual buildings, schools, gymnasiums, Moscow University, Academy of Sciences, magazines, books, etc. By the end of the 18th century, a whole layer of people appeared with high level mental interests, material and spiritual needs, ideological and moral demands. Social groups such as professors, students, playwrights, actors, composers, theatergoers, publishers, subscribers to newspapers and magazines, and many others are formed.

The concept of “enlightened reader” appeared. Of course, there were not so many such people. The mass of officials and nobles (especially provincial ones) was deprived of any higher interests. The new (European) culture developed among the nobility as imitation of foreign tastes, fashions, contempt for the native language, religion, and “domestic morals.” To a certain extent, we can also talk about the ignorance of a significant part of the nobility. This situation in the country worried enlightened Russian people, this can be judged by diary entries, memoirs, private correspondence, articles in magazines.

Another problem that begins to worry the “enlightened reader” is the peasant question. At that time, only for a few did it arise as a question of liberating peasants from serfdom or at least limiting their duties to the landowner and the state. Society was much more interested in its humanistic aspect: attitude towards the peasant as an individual, interest in his inner world, culture. This was reflected in the appearance of the image of the peasant in literature and art. Russian publisher Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov(1744-1818) developed the peasant theme in his magazines. Theaters begin to stage comedies and comic operas on a peasant theme. Painter M. Shibanov showed human dignity peasants, the morality of their family relationships. In parallel with the appearance of the image of the peasant in literature and art, interest in peasant culture arose and gradually deepened. Collections of proverbs, songs, fairy tales, and epics were published.

Against the background of these processes, Enlightenment ideas penetrated into Russia from Europe. In Russia, the Age of Enlightenment had its own characteristics.

One of characteristic features Russian Enlightenment was "Voltairianism". Voltaire's works were especially widely translated and published. “Voltairianism” was understood in the 18th century as a synonym for freethinking. The ideas of Voltaire and other enlighteners turned out to be consonant with a variety of representatives of Russian society thanks to their bold and vivid presentation of the problems of the human personality, its sovereignty, thanks to new approaches to morality, and problems of education. Big role played by the brilliant literary form in which these ideas were clothed. There was even a kind of “fashion” for Voltaire. This “fashion” accumulated his works in the libraries of the nobility - the very libraries in which the forbidden Voltaire was later eagerly read by the future Decembrists, Pushkin, and Herzen.

The works of the Enlightenment not only aroused curiosity in Russian society, but were carefully studied, used in ideological and literary disputes, and became facts of public life and culture. But they were perceived differently in Russian society than in France. E.R. Dashkova, the future director of the Academy of Sciences and president of the Russian Academy, was engrossed in Bayle, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Helvetius since childhood. In France, she often met Diderot, admired him, and asked him for a long time about French laws, way of life, sciences, literature, and art. But as soon as the conversation between them turned to the “slavery of our peasants,” the entire contrast and irreconcilability of their views on this issue was revealed. Dashkova resolutely denied the need and possibility of abolishing serfdom. Her main argument: “When the lower classes of my compatriots are enlightened, then they will be worthy of freedom.” Just like Dashkova, few people in Russian society in the last third of the 18th century could accept the “system-forming” in the Enlightenment - the denial of the feudal order.

Russian Enlightenment was born on Russian soil and answered the questions of Russian life, so we cannot expect from him in the 18th century. and at the beginning of the 19th century. such ideological maturity and radicalism as was characteristic of the French Enlightenment, especially its left wing. Many outstanding figures of Russian culture accepted existing social relations as inevitable. They could suffer from injustices, from the arbitrariness of judges and other officials, but they did not oppose the established order of things. They escaped from his shortcomings - some to their estates, others to the world of poetry and art.

Typical features of the Russian enlightener were disgust for the tyranny of the landowners and “sensitivity to the peasant class,” rejection of the most disgusting manifestations of serfdom morality. It is important to highlight such a trait as activity, the desire to measure the state of things for the better. The very word "Enlightenment" contains the idea of ​​activity; It is no coincidence that Voltaire’s constant calls for “philosophy”: “preach, write, fight,” “perk up, fight,” “enlighten people.”

The largest figure of the Russian Enlightenment was N.I. Novikov, journalist and book publisher, who has published about 1000 publications. In his satirical magazines "Drone" and "Painter", published in 1769-1773, he attacked the deep-rooted vices of administrative and public life: bureaucratic tyranny, embezzlement, bribery, greed and cruelty of the owners of "baptized property." Novikov associated the destruction of the serf rights with the gradual enlightenment of the people, the eradication of landowner abuses and humane reforms. Novikov was one of those who actively fought against the thoughtless enthusiasm for the French Enlightenment. This free-thinking, he argued, is not from learning, but from ignorance or frivolity. True enlightenment must combine to develop the mind and moral sense, to harmonize European education with the understanding of Russian national identity.

Russian artistic culture in the 18th century developed similarly to Western European culture; for the first time, the trends characteristic of European art and literature are clearly defined in it. The beginning of the century was marked by a number of phenomena in art associated with the Baroque. In Russia, Baroque did not become an artistic movement and was characteristic of a transitional time, in particular for the literature of the Peter the Great era. In architecture, the Baroque style clearly manifested itself in the second third of the 18th century. The greatest masters of the Baroque were architects V.V. Rastrelli (1700-1771), S.I. Chevakinsky(1713-after 1774), D.V. Ukhtomsky (1719-1755).

The dominant trend in artistic culture of the second half of the 18th century. became classicism. Russian classicism was formed somewhat later than Western European classicism. The process of formation of this style in Russian culture was not simultaneous. It began earliest (30-50s) in Russian literature. Russian classicism, subject to the general laws of style, has its own characteristics.

In France, the formation of classicism took place in the 17th century, and “enlightened absolutism” subjugated and supported it. Russian classicism began to take shape during the period of reaction after the death of Peter I. New Russian literature was permeated with an offensive spirit, full of social, civic pathos. The focus of Russian classicism was not antiquity with its ahistorical heroes, but the harsh Russian reality itself.

The main thing in the ideologists of classicism is state pathos. The state, created in the first decades of the 18th century, was declared the highest value. The classicists, inspired by Peter's reforms, believed in the possibility of its further improvement. It seemed to them to be a reasonably structured social organism, where each class fulfills the duties assigned to it. “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science,” wrote A.P. Sumarokov. Russian classicism adopted the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism from the Enlightenment. The state should be headed by a wise and enlightened monarch, standing above the selfish interests of individual classes and demanding from each of them honest service for the benefit of the whole society.Peter I was an example of such a person for the classicists.

In Russian classicism of the 30-50s of the 18th century. A huge place was given to sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. Both odes and satires were dedicated to the defense of the “teaching” and the benefits of the sciences. The very word “enlightened” meant not just an educated person, but a person - a citizen, to whom knowledge helped to realize his responsibility to society. “Ignorance” implied not only a lack of knowledge, but at the same time a lack of understanding of one’s duty to the state.

Russian classicists were close to the struggle of enlighteners against the church and church ideology. But if in the West there was a defense of the principle of religious tolerance, sometimes atheism, then Russian classicists in the first half of the 18th century. denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science from church persecution. In Russia, the educational idea about the natural equality of people was known. But Russian classicists did not demand equality of all classes before the law.

M.V. Lomonosov, HELL. Cantemir (1709-1744), A.P. Sumarokov(1717-1777) solved not only the problem of creating a new direction, but also carried out a literary reform. Creative method classicism was built on the basis of a rationalistic worldview. For each genre there were clear rules that had to be followed (“purity of the genre”). High genres are the ode, the epic poem, the eulogy; low genres - comedy, fable, epigram. Tragedy gravitated towards high genres, satire - towards low ones.

In high genres, “exemplary” heroes were depicted - monarchs, generals who could serve as role models (Peter I is the most popular). In low genres, characters were depicted who were seized by one or another “passion.” stood out Various types human passions and virtues: miser, prude, dandy, braggart. It was strictly forbidden to combine different passions, especially vice and virtue, in one character.

In the 80s - 90s of the 18th century. under the beneficial influence of educational ideas comes new level in the development of Russian classicism, which is characterized by a deeper and bolder social pathos of literary works. The comedy genre has received particular development. The comedies exposed not the passions of individual people, but the arbitrariness of landowners, corrupt legal proceedings, predation and bribery of officials. These trends were clearly embodied, and creativity Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin ( 1745- 1792). His play "The Minor" (1782) is the first socio-political comedy on the Russian stage.

At the end of the 18th century. - early XIX V. accounted for poetic creativity Gavril Romanovich Derzhavin(1743-1816). His poetry is characterized by high civic pathos: a bold denunciation of favorism at court, idleness, drunkenness among nobles, glorification of Russian soldiers and commanders. Derzhavin's merit was the democratization of the poetic word.

At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. in Russian literature, sentimentalism is being formed - a direction marked by emotional perception of the surrounding world, increased interest in human feeling. The flourishing of Russian sentimentalism is associated with creativity Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev ( 1749-1801) and Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin(1766-1826). The hero of works of art became a simple person, which determined the great attractive power of sentimental stories and novels. Unlike the classicists who glorified state power and the human mind, sentimentalists turned to the inner world of man, his psychology and experiences. The leading genres of literary works in sentimentalism were the novel, diary, and travel notes.

The achievements of Russian literature created favorable conditions for theatrical art. In 1756, the first in Russia was established in St. Petersburg state theater"for the presentation of tragedies and comedies." It was based on a troupe of Yaroslavl actors led by Fedor Grigorievich Volkov(1739-1763), a remarkable Russian actor from the Yaroslavl merchants. At the same time, the theater appeared in Moscow: it was composed of amateur actors from among the students of Moscow University and artists of the Italian comic opera Locatelli. However, the Moscow theater did not last long: most of the artists were transferred to St. Petersburg in 1761.

Fine art in the second half of the 18th century developed on the aesthetic principles of classicism, in line with the ideas of the Enlightenment. Artists and sculptors, using the means available to them, sought to solve important social problems. The officially recognized leading genre, which was given decisive importance within the walls of the Academy of Arts, was historical painting. The first Russian historical painter was Anton Pavlovich Losenko(1737-1773), who created several outstanding paintings ("Vladimir and Rogneda", "Hector's Farewell to Andromache").

Landscape became an independent genre of fine art. The most talented masters of this genre are S.F. Shchedrin (1745-1804), F.Ya. Alekseev ( 1753-1824) - captured on their canvases the picturesque corners of Moscow and St. Petersburg, Pavlovsk, Peterhof.

In the development of portraiture in the second half of the 18th century. two trends emerged: an increase in the artistic level, a deepening of the realism of the image and the flourishing of the ceremonial portrait. Portraits Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov(1735-1808) is distinguished by intimacy, spiritual subtlety and complexity at the same time; his painting amazes with its lightness, “airiness,” and poetry (portrait of A.P. Struyskaya), In the paintings Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky(1735-1822) had a strongly life-affirming educational beginning. He worked a lot in the genre of ceremonial portraiture, created portraits of figures of the Enlightenment that were deep in content (portraits of Diderot, N.I. Novikov, a series of portraits of students of the Smolny Institute). Creation Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky(1757-I825) is associated with the ideas of sentimentalism. He preferred a portrait depicting a model against the backdrop of nature, which made it possible to more deeply reveal the psychological appearance. The poetic portraits by Borovikovsky - M.I. are widely known. Lopukhina, V.I. Arsenyeva and others.

In the 18th century, a new art form for Russia—sculpture—was formed. One of the most striking monuments of sculpture was the equestrian statue of Peter I, made EM. Falcone(1716-1719). The works were distinguished by the unsurpassed depth of psychological interpretation of the model F.I. Shubina(1740-1805). They became the pinnacle of Russian realistic sculpture of the 18th century. (portrait busts of A.M. Golitsyn, P.A. Rumyantsev, M.V. Lomonosov).

The architecture of classicism is one of the remarkable pages of our cultural heritage. The founders of Russian classicism were Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov(1737-1799) and Ivan Egorovich Starov(1745-1808), who created architectural classics based on national traditions (Pashkov House in Moscow, Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg). With name Matvey Fedorovich Kazakova ( 1738-1812) is associated with the appearance of remarkable architectural monuments in Moscow (the building of the Senate in the Kremlin, the university, the Golitsin hospital, etc.). A feature of urban planning of that time was the development of ensemble buildings, the construction of buildings for state and public purposes (educational institutions, hospitals, theaters, etc.). Provincial cities were rebuilt according to the developed project. In every provincial town in the central square, in addition to the cathedral, public places and shopping arcades were erected, which became signs of the new socio-political and economic life. The city became the center of a new culture; new sociocultural institutions (schools, museums, libraries, theater) arose here.

Literature

1. Anisimov E.V. The time of Peter's reforms. L., 1989.

2. Dmitrieva N.A. A Brief History of Art. M., 1990. T.2.

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