Dutch painting. The Golden Age of Dutch Painting
Dutch artists made a great contribution to the work of masters who began their activities in the 17th century and did not stop until the present time. However, they had an influence not only on their colleagues, but also on professionals in literature (Valentin Proust, Donna Tartt) and photography (Ellen Kooi, Bill Gekas and others).
Beginning of development
In 1648, Holland gained independence, but for the formation of a new state, the Netherlands had to endure an act of revenge on the part of Spain, which killed about 10 thousand people in the Flemish city of Antwerp at that time. As a result of the massacre, the inhabitants of Flanders emigrated from the territories controlled by the Spanish authorities.
Based on this, it would be logical to recognize that the impetus for independent Dutch artists came precisely from Flemish creativity.
Since the 17th century, both state and artistic branches have occurred, leading to the formation of two schools of art, separated by nationality. They had a common origin, but were quite different in their characteristics. While Flanders remained under the wings of Catholicism, Holland experienced a completely new prosperity, starting from the 17th century.
Dutch culture
In the 17th century, the new state had just embarked on the path of its development, completely breaking ties with the art of the past era.
The fight with Spain gradually subsided. The national mood began to be traced in popular circles as they moved away from the Catholic religion previously imposed by the authorities.
Protestant rule had a contradictory view of decoration, which led to a reduction in works on religious themes, and in the future only played into the hands of secular art.
Never before now has the real surrounding reality been depicted so often in paintings. In their works, Dutch artists wanted to show ordinary everyday life without embellishment, refined tastes and nobility.
The secular artistic explosion gave rise to such numerous directions as landscape, portrait, everyday genre and still life (the existence of which even the most developed centers of Italy and France did not know).
The Dutch artists' own vision of realism, expressed in portraits, landscapes, interior works and still life paintings, aroused interest in this skill from all levels of society.
Thus, Dutch art of the 17th century was nicknamed the "Golden Age of Dutch Painting", securing its status as the most outstanding era in painting in the Netherlands.
It is important to know: there is a misconception that the Dutch school depicted only the mediocrity of human existence, but the masters of those times brazenly destroyed the framework with the help of their fantastic works (for example, “Landscape with John the Baptist” by Bloemaert).
Dutch artists of the 17th century. Rembrandt
Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn is considered to be one of the largest artistic figures in Holland. In addition to his activities as an artist, he was also engaged in engraving and was rightfully considered a master of chiaroscuro.
His legacy is rich in individual diversity: portraits, genre scenes, still lifes, landscapes, as well as paintings on subjects of history, religion and mythology.
His ability to master chiaroscuro allowed him to enhance the emotional expressiveness and spirituality of a person.
While working on portraits, he worked on human facial expressions.
In connection with the heartbreaking tragic events, his later works were filled with a dim light that exposed people’s deep experiences, as a result of which his brilliant works became of no interest to anyone.
At that time, the fashion was for external beauty without attempts to dive into depth, as well as naturalism, which was at odds with frank realism.
Every Russian lover of fine art can see the painting “The Return of the Prodigal Son” with his own eyes, since this work is in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg.
Frans Hals
Frans Hals is a great Dutch artist and major portrait painter who helped introduce the genre of free writing into Russian art.
The work that brought him fame was the painting entitled “The Banquet of the Officers of the Rifle Company of St. George,” painted in 1616.
His portrait works were too natural for that time, which was at odds with the present day. Due to the fact that the artist remained misunderstood, he, like the great Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. "The Gypsy" (1625-1630) is one of his most famous works.
Jan Steen
Jan Steen is one of the most witty and cheerful Dutch artists at first glance. Making fun of social vices, he loved to resort to the art of satire of society. While entertaining the viewer with harmless, funny images of revelers and ladies of easy virtue, he actually warned against such a lifestyle.
The artist also had calmer paintings, for example, the work “Morning Toilet,” which at first glance seemed like an absolutely innocent action. But if you look closely at the details, you can be quite surprised by their revelations: these are traces of stockings that previously squeezed the legs, and a pot filled with something indecent at night, as well as a dog that allows itself to be right on the owner’s pillow.
In his best works, the artist was ahead of his colleagues in his elegantly skillful combination of color palettes and mastery of shadows.
Other Dutch artists
This article listed only three bright people out of dozens who deserve to be on the same list with them:
So, in this article you got acquainted with Dutch artists of the 17th century and their works.
The first years of the 17th century are considered to be the birth of the Dutch school. This school belongs to the great schools of painting and is an independent and independent school with unique and inimitable characteristics and identity.
This has a largely historical explanation - a new movement in art and a new state on the map of Europe arose simultaneously.
Until the 17th century, Holland did not stand out for its abundance of national artists. Perhaps that is why in the future in this country one can count such a large number of artists, and specifically Dutch artists. While this country was one state with Flanders, it was mainly in Flanders that original artistic movements were intensively created and developed. Outstanding painters Van Eyck, Memling, Rogier van der Weyden, the likes of whom were not found in Holland, worked in Flanders. Only isolated bursts of genius in painting can be noted at the beginning of the 16th century; this is the artist and engraver Luke of Leiden, who is a follower of the Bruges school. But Luke of Leiden did not create any school. The same can be said about the painter Dirk Bouts from Haarlem, whose creations hardly stand out against the background of the style and manner of the origins of the Flemish school, about the artists Mostert, Skorel and Heemskerke, who, despite all their significance, are not individual talents that characterize them with their originality country.
Then Italian influence spread to everyone who created with the brush - from Antwerp to Haarlem. This was one of the reasons that borders were blurred, schools were mixed, and artists lost their national identity. Not even a single student of Jan Skorel survived. The last, the most famous, the greatest portrait painter, who, together with Rembrandt, is the pride of Holland, an artist gifted with powerful talent, excellently educated, varied in style, courageous and flexible by nature, a cosmopolitan who has lost all traces of his origin and even his name - Antonis Moreau , (he was the official painter of the Spanish king) died after 1588.
The surviving painters almost ceased to be Dutch in the spirit of their work; they lacked the organization and ability to renew the national school. These were representatives of Dutch mannerism: the engraver Hendrik Goltzius, Cornelis of Haarlem, who imitated Michelangelo, Abraham Bloemaert, a follower of Correggio, Michiel Mierevelt, a good portrait artist, skillful, precise, laconic, a little cold, modern for his time, but not national. It is interesting that he alone did not succumb to Italian influence, which subjugated most of the manifestations in the painting of Holland at that time.
By the end of the 16th century, when portrait painters had already created a school, other artists began to appear and form. In the second half of the 16th century, a large number of painters were born who became a phenomenon in painting; this was almost the awakening of the Dutch national school. The wide variety of talents leads to many different directions and paths for the development of painting. Artists test themselves in all genres, in different color schemes: some work in a light manner, others in a dark one (the influence of the Italian artist Caravaggio was felt here). Painters are committed to light colors, and colorists to dark colors. The search for a pictorial manner begins, and rules for depicting chiaroscuro are developed. The palette becomes more relaxed and free, as do the lines and plasticity of the image. Rembrandt's direct predecessors appear - his teachers Jan Pace and Peter Lastman. Genre methods are also becoming more free - historicity is not as obligatory as before. A special, deeply national and almost historical genre is being created - group portraits intended for public places - city halls, corporations, workshops and communities. With this event, the most perfect in form, the 16th century ends and the 17th century begins.
This is only the beginning, the embryo of the school; the school itself does not exist yet. There are many talented artists. Among them there are skilled craftsmen, several great painters. Morelse, Jan Ravestein, Lastman, Frans Hals, Pulenburg, van Schoten, van de Venne, Thomas de Keyser, Honthorst, Cape the Elder, and finally Esayas van de Velde and van Goyen - all of them were born at the end of the 16th century. This list also includes artists whose names have been preserved by history, those who represented only individual attempts to achieve mastery, and those who became teachers and predecessors of future masters.
This was a critical moment in the development of Dutch painting. With an unstable political balance, everything depended only on chance. In Flanders, where a similar awakening was observed, on the contrary, there was already a sense of confidence and stability that was not yet there in Holland. In Flanders there were already artists who had formed or were close to this. Political and socio-historical conditions in this country were more favorable. There was a more flexible and tolerant government, traditions and society. The need for luxury gave rise to a persistent need for art. In general, there were serious reasons for Flanders to become a great center of art for the second time. For this, only two things were missing: several years of peace and a master who would be the creator of the school.
In 1609, when the fate of Holland was being decided - Philip III agreed on a truce between Spain and the Netherlands - Rubens appeared.
Everything depended on political or military chance. Defeated and subjugated, Holland would have to completely lose its independence. Then, of course, there could not be two independent schools - in Holland and in Flanders. In a country dependent on Italian-Flemish influence, such a school and talented original artists could not develop.
In order for the Dutch people to be born, and for Dutch art to see the light with them, a revolution, deep and victorious, was needed. It was especially important that the revolution be based on justice, reason, necessity, that the people deserve what they wanted to achieve, that they be decisive, convinced that they are right, hardworking, patient, restrained, heroic, and wise. All these historical features were subsequently reflected during the formation of the Dutch school of painting.
The situation turned out to be such that the war did not ruin the Dutch, but enriched them; the struggle for independence did not deplete their strength, but strengthened and inspired them. In the victory over the invaders, the people showed the same courage as in the fight against the elements, over the sea, over the flooding of lands, over the climate. What was supposed to destroy the people served them well. Treaties signed with Spain gave Holland freedom and strengthened its position. All this led to the creation of their own art, which glorified, spiritualized and expressed the inner essence of the Dutch people.
After the treaty of 1609 and the official recognition of the United Provinces, there was an immediate lull. It was as if a beneficial, warm breeze touched human souls, revived the soil, found and awakened sprouts that were ready to bloom. It is amazing how unexpectedly and in what a short period of time - no more than thirty years - in a small space, on ungrateful desert soil, in harsh living conditions, a wonderful galaxy of painters, and great painters at that, appeared.
They appeared immediately and everywhere: in Amsterdam, Dordrecht, Leiden, Delft, Utrecht, Rotterdam, Haarlem, even abroad - as if from seeds that fell outside the field. The earliest are Jan van Goyen and Wijnants, born at the turn of the century. And further, in the interval from the beginning of the century to the end of its first third - Cuyp, Terborch, Brouwer, Rembrandt, Adrian van Ostade, Ferdinand Bohl, Gerard Dau, Metsu, Venix, Wauerman, Berchem, Potter, Jan Steen, Jacob Ruisdael.
But the creative juices didn’t stop there. Next were born Pieter de Hooch, Hobbema. The last of the greats, van der Heyden and Adrian van de Velde, were born in 1636 and 1637. At this time, Rembrandt was thirty years old. Approximately these years can be considered the time of the first flowering of the Dutch school.
Considering the historical events of that time, one can imagine what the aspirations, character and fate of the new school of painting should be. What could these artists write in a country like Holland?
The revolution, which gave the Dutch people freedom and wealth, at the same time deprived them of what constitutes the vital basis of great schools everywhere. She changed beliefs, changed habits, abolished images of both ancient and gospel scenes, and stopped the creation of large works - church and decorative paintings. In fact, every artist had an alternative - to be original or not to be at all.
It was necessary to create art for a nation of burghers that would appeal to them, depict them, and be relevant to them. They were practical, not prone to daydreaming, business people, with broken traditions and anti-Italian sentiments. We can say that the Dutch people had a simple and bold task - to create their own portrait.
Dutch painting was and could only be an expression of the external appearance, a true, accurate, similar portrait of Holland. It was a portrait of people and terrain, burgher customs, squares, streets, fields, sea and sky. The main elements of the Dutch school were portraits, landscapes, and everyday scenes. Such was this painting from the beginning of its existence until its decline.
It may seem that nothing could be simpler than the discovery of this ordinary art. In fact, it is impossible to imagine anything equal to it in breadth and novelty.
Immediately everything changed in the manner of understanding, seeing and conveying: point of view, artistic ideal, choice of nature, style and method. Italian and Flemish painting in its best manifestations is still understandable to us, because they are still enjoyed, but these are already dead languages, and no one will use them anymore.
At one time there was a habit of thinking loftily and generally; there was an art that consisted in the skillful selection of objects. In their decoration, correction. It loved to show nature as it does not exist in reality. Everything depicted was more or less consistent with the person’s personality, depended on it and was its likeness. As a result, an art arose in which man is at the center, and all other images of the universe were either embodied in human forms, or were vaguely displayed as a secondary environment of man. Creativity developed according to certain patterns. Each object had to borrow its plastic form from the same ideal. The man had to be depicted more often naked than clothed, well-built and handsome, so that he could play the role assigned to him with appropriate grandeur.
Now the task of painting has become simpler. It was necessary to give each thing or phenomenon its true meaning, to place a person in its proper place, and, if necessary, to do without him altogether.
It's time to think less, look closely at what's closest, observe better and write differently. Now this is the painting of the crowd, the citizen, the working man. It was necessary to become modest for everything modest, small for the small, inconspicuous for the inconspicuous, to accept everything without rejecting or despising anything, to penetrate into the hidden life of things, lovingly merging with their existence, it was necessary to become attentive, inquisitive and patient. Genius now consists of not having any prejudices. There is no need to embellish, or ennoble, or expose anything: all this is a lie and useless work.
Dutch painters, creating in some corner of the northern country with water, forests, sea horizons, were able to reflect the entire universe in miniature. A small country, carefully explored according to the tastes and instincts of the observer, turns into an inexhaustible treasury, as abundant as life itself, as rich in sensations as the human heart is rich in them. The Dutch school has been growing and working like this for a whole century.
Dutch painters found subjects and colors to satisfy any human inclinations and affections, for rough and delicate natures, ardent and melancholic, dreamy and cheerful. Cloudy days give way to cheerful sunny days, the sea is sometimes calm and sparkling with silver, sometimes stormy and gloomy. There are many pastures with farms and many ships crowded along the coast. And you can almost always feel the movement of air over the expanses and strong winds from the North Sea, which pile up clouds, bend trees, turn the wings of mills and drive light and shadows. To this must be added cities, home and street life, festivities at fairs, depictions of various morals, the need of the poor, the horrors of winter, idleness in taverns with their tobacco smoke and mugs of beer. On the other hand - a wealthy lifestyle, conscientious work, cavalcades, afternoon rest, hunting. In addition - public life, civil ceremonies, banquets. The result was new art, but with subjects as old as time.
Thus arose a harmonious unity of the spirit of the school and the most astonishing diversity ever to arise within a single movement of art.
In general, the Dutch school is called genre school. If we decompose it into its component elements, then we can distinguish in it landscape painters, masters of group portraits, marine painters, animal painters, artists who painted group portraits or still lifes. If you look in more detail, you can distinguish many genre varieties - from lovers of picturesqueness to ideologists, from copyists of nature to its interpreters, from conservative homebodies to travelers, from those who love and feel humor to artists who avoid comedy. Let us remember the paintings of Ostade's humor and the seriousness of Ruisdael, the equanimity of Potter and the mockery of Jan Steen, the wit of Van de Velde and the gloomy dreaminess of the great Rembrandt.
With the exception of Rembrandt, who must be considered an exceptional phenomenon, both for his country and for all times, then all other Dutch artists are characterized by a certain style and method. The laws for this style are sincerity, accessibility, naturalness, and expressiveness. If you take away from Dutch art what can be called honesty, then you will cease to understand its vital basis and will not be able to determine either its moral character or its style. In these artists, who for the most part have earned the reputation of short-sighted copyists, you feel a sublime and kind soul, loyalty to truth, and love of realism. All this gives their works a value that the things depicted on them themselves do not seem to have.
The beginning of this sincere style and the first result of this honest approach is a perfect drawing. Among Dutch painters, Potter is a manifestation of genius in precise, verified measurements and the ability to trace the movement of each line.
In Holland, the sky often takes up half, and sometimes the entire picture. Therefore, it is necessary for the sky in the picture to move, attract, and carry us along with it. So that the difference between day, evening and night can be felt, so that heat and cold can be felt, so that the viewer is both chilly and enjoys it, and feels the need to concentrate. Although it is probably difficult to call such a drawing the noblest of all, try to find artists in the world who would paint the sky, like Ruisdael and van der Neer, and would say so much and so brilliantly with their work. Everywhere the Dutch have the same design - restrained, laconic, precise, natural and naive, skillful and not artificial.
The Dutch palette is quite worthy of their drawing, hence the perfect unity of their painting method. Any Dutch painting is easy to recognize by its appearance. It is small in size and distinguished by its powerful, strict colors. This requires great precision, a steady hand, and deep concentration from the artist in order to achieve a concentrated effect on the viewer. The artist must go deep into himself in order to nurture his idea, the viewer must go deep into himself in order to comprehend the artist’s plan. It is Dutch paintings that give the clearest idea of this hidden and eternal process: to feel, think and express. There is no more rich picture in the world, since it is the Dutch who include so much content in such a small space. That is why everything here takes on a precise, compressed and condensed form.
Every Dutch painting is concave, it consists of curves described around one point, which is the embodiment of the concept of the picture and shadows located around the main spot of light. A solid base, a running top and rounded corners tending towards the center - all this is outlined, colored and illuminated in a circle. As a result, the painting acquires depth, and the objects depicted on it move away from the viewer’s eye. The viewer is, as it were, led from the foreground to the last, from the frame to the horizon. We seem to inhabit the picture, move, look deep, raise our heads to measure the depth of the sky. The rigor of aerial perspective, the perfect correspondence of color and shades with the place in space that the object occupies.
For a more complete understanding of Dutch painting, one should consider in detail the elements of this movement, the features of the methods, the nature of the palette, and understand why it is so poor, almost monochromatic and so rich in results. But all these questions, like many others, have always been the subject of speculation by many art historians, but have never been sufficiently studied and clarified. The description of the main features of Dutch art allows us to distinguish this school from others and trace its origins. An expressive image illustrating this school is a painting by Adriaan van Ostade from the Amsterdam Museum "Artist's Atelier". This subject was one of the favorites of Dutch painters. We see an attentive man, slightly hunched over, with a prepared palette, thin, clean brushes and transparent oil. He writes in the twilight. His face is concentrated, his hand is careful. Only, perhaps, these painters were more daring and knew how to laugh more carefree and enjoy life than can be concluded from the surviving images. Otherwise, how would their genius manifest itself in an atmosphere of professional traditions?
The foundation for the Dutch school was laid by van Goyen and Wijnants at the beginning of the 17th century, establishing some laws of painting. These laws were passed down from teachers to students, and for a whole century Dutch painters lived by them without deviating to the side.
Dutch mannerism painting
Introduction
1. Little Dutch
Dutch school of painting
Genre painting
4. Symbolism. Still life
Rembrandt van Rijn
Vermeer of Delft Jan
Conclusion
Introduction
The purpose of the control work is:
· In the development of creative potential;
· Formation of interest in art;
· Consolidation and replenishment of knowledge.
Dutch art was born in the 17th century. This art is considered independent and independent; it has certain forms and characteristics.
Until the 17th century, Holland did not have its own significant artists in art, because belonged to the state of Flanders. However, few artists are celebrated during this time period. This is the artist and engraver Luca Leydensky (1494-1533), painter Dirk Bouts (1415-1475), artist Skorele (1495-1562).
Gradually, different schools mixed and masters lost the distinctive features of their schools, and the remaining artists of Holland ceased to have the spirit of national creativity. Many different and new styles are emerging. Artists try to paint in all genres, looking for an individual style. Genre methods were erased: historicity is not as necessary as before. A new genre is being created - group porters.
At the beginning of the 17th century, when the fate of Holland was being decided, Philip III agreed on a truce between Spain and the Netherlands. What was needed was a revolution, a political or military situation. The struggle for independence united the people. The war strengthened the national spirit. The signed treaties with Spain gave Holland freedom. This prompted the creation of their own and special art, expressing the essence of the Dutch.
The peculiarity of Dutch artists was to create a real image down to the smallest detail - a manifestation of feelings and thoughts. This is the basis of the Dutch school. It becomes realistic art, and by the middle of the 17th century it reaches peaks in all areas.
For Holland, it is typical to divide not only into genres, but also into numerous subtypes. Some masters paint scenes from the life of burghers and officers - Pieter de Hooch (1495-1562), Gerard Terborch (1617-1681), Gabriel Metsu (1629-1667), others - from peasant life - Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685), third - scenes from the life of scientists and doctors - Gerrit Dou (1613-1675); landscape painters - Jan Porcellis (1584-1632), Simon de Vlieger (1601-1653), depictors of forest corners - Meindert Hobbema (1638-1609), interior masters - Pieter Janssens (1623-1682). From time to time, a certain genre becomes traditional in art schools. For example, Harlem still life painters of the so-called “breakfasts” - Pieter Claes (1598-1661), Willem Heda (1594-1680).
Artists show mores and customs, ethical and moral standards of human behavior. Family events are often depicted. Landscape painters and still life painters convey light in the open air and masterfully depict the texture of objects in closed spaces. Household painting is at the top thanks to Jan Steen (1626-1679), Gerhard Terborch (1617-1681), Pieter de Hooch (1629-1624).
1. Little Dutch
The Little Dutch are a group of artists of the 17th century, which “unite” painters of small-sized landscape and everyday genre paintings (hence the name). Such paintings were intended for the modest interior of residential buildings. They were purchased by townspeople and peasants. Such paintings are characterized by a feeling of comfort in the picture, subtlety of details, closeness between the person and the interior.
P. de Hooch, J. van Goyen (1596-1656), J. and S. van Ruisdael (1628-1682) and (1602 - 1670), E. de Witte (1617-1692), P. Claes, W. Heda, W. Kalf (1619-1693), G. Terborch, G. Metsu, A. van Ostade, J. Steen (1626-1679), A. Kuyp (1620-1691), etc. Each specialized, as a rule, in one particular genre. The “Little Dutchmen” continued the traditions of the Dutch masters of the Renaissance, who argued that art should not only bring pleasure, but also remind one of values.
The creativity of artists can be divided into 3 groups:
1630s - the establishment of realism in national painting (the leading artistic center was Haarlem, an important factor was the influence of F. Hals);
1640-1660s - the flourishing of the art school (the center of art moves to Amsterdam, attracting artists from other cities, the influence of Rembrandt becomes relevant<#"justify">2. Dutch school of painting
For three quarters of a century, the rise of art continued in the north of the Netherlands, in the republic of the United Provinces, called Holland. In 1609, this republic received state status. A bourgeois state emerged here.
The Italian artist Caravaggio (1571-1610) had a significant role in Renaissance painting. He painted his paintings very realistically, and the objects and figures had a high chiaroscuro technique.
There were many artists, and they lived in small cities: Haarlem, Delft, Leiden. Each of these cities developed its own school with its own genre themes, but Amsterdam played the most important role in the development of Dutch art.
3. Genre painting
In Holland, along with the popularity of the landscape genre, new ones appear: marina - seascape, city landscape - veduta, images of animals - animal painting. The works of Pieter Bruegel had a significant influence on the landscape (1525-1529). The Dutch painted their own unique beauty of the nature of their native land. In the 17th century, the Dutch school of painting became one of the leading in Europe. People's surroundings have become a source of inspiration for artists. In the art of this time, the formation of a system of genres, which began in the Renaissance, was completed. In portraits, everyday paintings, landscapes and still lifes, artists conveyed their impressions of nature and everyday life. The genre of everyday painting began to have a new concept - genre painting. The everyday genre has developed in two varieties - peasant and burgher (urban) genre. Genre paintings depicted the life of a private person: revels of revelers, economic activities, playing music. Artists paid attention to the appearance, poses, and costumes. Objects became part of the coziness: a mahogany table, a wardrobe, an armchair upholstered in leather, a dark glass decanter and glass, fruit. This genre reflected the behavior and communication of people belonging to different classes.
The works of Garard Dow were very popular at that time. He paints modest scenes from the life of the petty bourgeoisie. Often depicts elderly women sitting at a spinning wheel or reading. Dow's obvious tendency is to depict the surfaces of objects in his small pictures - fabric patterns, wrinkles on old faces, fish scales, etc. (appendix; fig.
But genre painting has undergone evolution. During the period of its formation anew, stories were distributed on the themes of recreation, entertainment, and scenes from the life of officers. Such pictures were called “breakfasts”, “banquets”, “societies”, “concerts”. This painting was distinguished by its variegation of color and joyful tones. The original genre was “breakfasts”. This is a type of still life in which the character of their owners was conveyed through the depiction of dishes and various dishes.
The everyday genre is the most distinctive and original phenomenon of the Dutch school, which opened up the everyday life of a private person to world art.
Jan Steen also wrote on the genre theme of art. He noted with a sense of humor the details of everyday life and relationships between people. In the painting “Revelers,” the artist himself looks at the viewer cheerfully and slyly, sitting next to his wife, who has fallen asleep after a cheerful feast. And in the film, through the facial expressions and gestures of the characters, Jan Steen skillfully reveals the plot of an imaginary illness.
By the beginning of the 30s, the formation of the Dutch genre painting was completed. Genre painting was divided according to social criteria: subjects on themes from the life of the bourgeoisie, and scenes from the life of peasants and the urban poor.
One of the famous artists who painted in the “peasant genre” was Adrian van Ostad. In the early period of creativity, the depiction of peasants was comical. Thus, in the picture, the fighters, illuminated by harsh light, seem not to be living people, but puppets. The juxtaposition of cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light create masks with angry emotions on their faces.
Later, the artist paints pictures with calmer subjects, depicting a person during his usual activities, most often in moments of rest. For example, the interior painting “Village Musicians”. Ostade conveys the concentration of the “musicians,” depicting children watching them through the window with subtle humor. Adrian’s brother Isaac van Ostade, who died early, also worked in the “peasant genre.” He depicted life in rural Holland. The painting “Winter View” presents a typical landscape with a gray sky hanging over the ground, a frozen river, on the banks of which there is a village.
In the 50-60s of the 17th century, the themes of genre paintings narrowed and their structure changed. They become calmer, more lyrical, more thoughtful. This stage is represented by the work of such artists as: Pieter de Hooch, Gerard Terborch, Gabriel Metsu, Peter Janssens. Their works are characterized by an idealized image of the life of the Dutch bourgeoisie. Thus, in the interior painting “Room in a Dutch House” by Pieter Janssens, a cozy room filled with sunlight is depicted with sunbeams playing on the floor and walls. The choice of composition emphasizes the unity of man and his environment.
Dutch genre painters tried to reflect the inner world of man in their works. In regularly occurring situations, they were able to show a world of experiences. Thus, Gerard Terborch in the film “A Glass of Lemonade” depicted a subtle language of gestures, hand touches, eye contact, which reveals a whole range of feelings and relationships between the characters.
Subtlety and truthfulness in recreating reality are combined by Dutch masters with inconspicuous and everyday beauty. This trait manifested itself more clearly in the still life. The Dutch called it "stilleven". In this understanding, the masters saw in inanimate objects a hidden life associated with the life of a person, with his way of life, habits, and tastes. Dutch painters created the impression of natural “mess” in the arrangement of things: they showed a cut pie, a peeled lemon with the peel hanging in a spiral, an unfinished glass of wine, a burning candle, an open book - it always seems that someone touched these objects, only that they were used , the invisible presence of a person is felt.
The leading masters of Dutch still life in the first half of the 17th century were Pieter Claes 1and Willem Hed. A favorite theme of their still lifes is the so-called “breakfasts”. In “Breakfast with Lobster” by V. Kheda (appendix; Fig. 16) objects of the most varied shapes and materials - a coffee pot, a glass, a lemon, a silver plate. Objects are arranged in such a way as to show the attractiveness and peculiarity of each. Using a variety of techniques, Heda perfectly conveys the material and the specificity of their texture; Thus, the glare of light plays differently on the surface of glass and metal. All elements of the composition are united by light and color. In “Still Life with a Candle” by P. Klass, not only the accuracy of the reproduction of the material qualities of objects is remarkable - the composition and lighting give them great emotional expressiveness. The still lifes of Klass and Kheda are similar to each other - they are a mood of intimacy and comfort, tranquility in the life of a burgher's house, where there is prosperity. Still life can be considered as one of the important themes of Dutch art - the theme of the life of a private person. She got her main decision in a genre film.
Symbolism. Still life
All objects in a Dutch still life are symbolic. Collections published during the 18th century<#"justify">o crumbled petals near the vase are signs of frailty;
o a withered flower is a hint of the disappearance of feelings;
o irises are a sign of the Virgin Mary;
o red flowers are a symbol of Christ’s atoning sacrifice;
o The white lily is not only a beautiful flower, but also a symbol of the purity of the Virgin Mary;
o carnation - a symbol of the shed blood of Christ;
o white tulip - false love.
o pomegranate - a symbol of resurrection, a symbol of chastity;
o apples, peaches, oranges were reminiscent of the Fall;
o the wine in a glass or jug represented the sacrificial blood of Christ;
o olive - a symbol of peace;
o rotten fruits are a symbol of aging;
o ears of wheat, ivy - a symbol of rebirth and the cycle of life.
o glass is a symbol of fragility;
o porcelain - cleanliness;
o the bottle is a symbol of sin and drunkenness;
o broken dishes are a symbol of death;
o an inverted or empty glass means emptiness;
o knife - a symbol of betrayal;
o silver vessels are the personification of wealth.
o hourglass - a reminder of the transience of life;
o skull - a reminder of the inevitability of death;
o ears of wheat - symbols of rebirth and the cycle of life;
o bread is a symbol of the body of the Lord;
o weapons and armor are a symbol of power and might, a designation of what cannot be taken with you to the grave;
o keys - symbolize power;
o a smoking pipe is a symbol of fleeting and elusive earthly pleasures;
o carnival mask - is a sign of a person’s absence; irresponsible pleasure;
o mirrors, glass balls are symbols of vanity, a sign of reflection, unreality.
The foundations of the Dutch realistic landscape were formed at the beginning of the 17th century. Artists depicted their favorite nature with dunes and canals, houses and villages. They tried to depict the nationality of the landscape, the atmosphere of the air and the characteristics of the season. Masters increasingly subordinated all components of the picture to a single tone. They had a keen sense of color and skillfully conveyed transitions from light to shadow, from tone to tone.
The largest representative of Dutch realistic landscape was Jan van Goyen (1596-1656). He worked in Leiden and The Hague. The artist loved to depict valleys and the water surface of rivers on small-sized canvases. Goyen left a lot of space for the sky with clouds. This is the painting “View of the Waal River near Nijmegen”, designed in a subtle brown-gray range of colors.
Later, the characteristic essence of the landscapes changes. She becomes a little broader, more emotional. The specificity remains the same - restrained, but the tones acquire depth.
All the new features of the landscape style were embodied in his paintings by Jacob van Ruisdael (1629-1682). By depicting trees and bushes as voluminous, it created the feeling that they were moving to the foreground and becoming more powerful. With an excellent sense of perspective, Ruisdael skillfully conveyed the wide plains and surroundings of Holland. The choice of tone and lighting evokes focus. Ruisdael also loved ruins as decorative details that speak of destruction and the frailty of earthly existence. "Jewish Cemetery" represents a neglected area. Ruisdael was not successful in his time. The realism of his paintings did not correspond to the tastes of society. The artist, now deservedly enjoying worldwide fame, died a poor man in a Harlem almshouse.
Portrait painting. Frans Hals
One of the great Dutch artists was Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). He was born in the 17th century in Antwerp. As a very young artist he came to Haarlem, where he grew up and was formed in the style of the school of Karel Van Mander. Haarlem was proud of its artist, and they brought eminent guests to his studio - Rubens and Van Dyck.
Hals was almost exclusively a portrait painter, but his art meant a lot not only to Dutch portraiture, but also to the formation of other genres. In Hals’s work, three types of portrait compositions can be distinguished: a group portrait, a commissioned individual portrait, and a special type of portrait images, similar in nature to genre painting.
In 1616, Hals painted “The Banquet of the Officers of the Company of St. George’s Rifle Regiment,” in which he completely broke with the traditional pattern of a group porter. By creating a very lively work, uniting characters into groups and giving them various poses, he seemed to have merged portraiture with genre painting. The work was a success, and the artist was inundated with orders.
His characters stand naturally and freely in the portrait, their posture and gestures seem unstable, and the expression on their faces is about to change. The most remarkable feature of Hals’s creative manner is the ability to convey character through individual facial expressions and gestures, as if caught on the fly - “Cheerful drinking companion”, “Mulatto”, “Smiling officer”. The artist loved emotional states full of dynamics. But in this instant that Hals captured, the most essential, the core of the image of the “Gypsy”, “Malle Baba” is always captured.
However, in the images of Hals from the very end of the 30s and 40s, thoughtfulness and sadness appear, alien to his characters in the portrait of Willem Heythuisen, and sometimes a slight irony slips through in the artist’s attitude towards them. The jubilant acceptance of life and man is gradually disappearing from Khalsa art.
Turning points have come in Khalsa painting. In the portraits of Hals, painted in the 50s and 60s, in-depth mastery of characterization is combined with a new inner meaning. One of the most powerful works of the late Hals is the portrait of a man from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (1650-1652). The composition of the portrait is a generational image of the figure, its setting in a clear front, the gaze directed directly at the viewer, the significance of the personality is felt. The man’s posture reveals cold authority and arrogant contempt for everyone. Self-esteem is combined in him with immense ambition. At the same time, a tinge of disappointment is unexpectedly caught in the gaze, as if in this person there lurks regret about the past - about his youth and the youth of his generation, whose ideals are forgotten and life incentives have faded.
Hals's portraits of the 50s and 60s reveal a lot about the Dutch reality of those years. The artist lived a long life, and he had the opportunity to witness the degeneration of Dutch society and the disappearance of its democratic spirit. It is no coincidence that Khalsa art is now going out of fashion. Hals's late works sensitively reflect the spirit of the time, so alien to the master, but in them one can also hear his own disappointment in the surrounding reality. In some works of these years, an echo of the personal feelings of the old artist, who was losing his former glory and had already seen the end of his life's journey, is captured.
Two years before his death, in 1664, Hals painted portraits of the regents and regents (trustees) of the Haarlem nursing home.
In "Portrait of the Regents" everyone is united by a feeling of disappointment and doom. There is no vitality in the regents, as in the early group portraits of Hals. Everyone is lonely, everyone exists on their own. Black tones with reddish-pink spots create a tragic atmosphere.
“Portrait of the Regents” is decided in a different emotional key. In the almost motionless poses of the callous old women, who do not know compassion, one can feel the master’s authority and at the same time, deep depression lives in all of them, a feeling of powerlessness and despair in the face of impending death.
Until the end of his days, Hals retained the infallibility of his skill, and the art of the eighty-year-old painter gained insight and strength.
6. Rembrandt van Rijn
Rembrandt (1606-1669) is the largest representative of the golden age of Dutch painting. Born in Leiden in 1606. To receive an art education, the artist moved to Amsterdam and entered the workshop of Pieter Lastman, and then returned to Leiden, where in 1625 he began an independent creative life. In 1631, Rembrandt finally moved to Amsterdam, and the rest of the master’s life was connected with this city.
Rembrandt's work is imbued with a philosophical understanding of life and the inner world of man. This is the pinnacle of development of Dutch art of the 17th century. Rembrandt's artistic heritage is distinguished by a variety of genres. He painted portraits, still lifes, landscapes, genre scenes, paintings on historical, biblical, and mythological themes. But the artist’s work reached its greatest depth in the last years of his life. The Uffizi has three works by the great master. This is a self-portrait in youth, a self-portrait in old age, a portrait of an old man (rabbi). In many of his later works, the artist plunges the entire surface of the canvas into darkness, focusing the viewer’s attention on the face.
This is how Rembrandt portrayed himself at the age of 23.
The period of moving to Amsterdam was marked in Rembrandt’s creative biography by the creation of many male and female sketches
In 1653, experiencing financial difficulties, the artist transferred almost all of his property to his son Titus, after which he declared bankruptcy in 1656. After selling his house and property, the artist moved to the outskirts of Amsterdam, to the Jewish quarter, where he spent the rest of his life. The closest person to him in those years was, apparently, Titus, because his images are the most numerous. The death of Titus in 1668 was one of the last blows of fate for the artist; he himself died a year later. "Matthew and the Angel" (1661). Perhaps Titus was the model for the angel.
The last two decades of Rembrandt's life became the pinnacle of his skill as a portrait painter. The models are the artist's comrades (Nicholas Breuning
7. Vermeer of Delft Jan
Dutch art painting still life
Vermeer of Delft Jan (1632-1675) - Dutch painter, the largest master of Dutch genre and landscape painting. Vermeer worked in Delft. As an artist, he developed under the influence of Karel Fabritius, who tragically died in the explosion of a gunpowder warehouse.
Vermeer's early paintings have sublime imagery ( Christ with Martha and Mary ). Vermeer's work was strongly influenced by the work of the master of genre painting Pieter de Hooch. The style of this painter was further developed in the paintings of Vermeer.
From the second half of the 50s, Vermeer painted small paintings with one or more figures in the silvery light of a house interior ( Girl with a letter Maid with a jug of milk ). In the late 50s, Vermeer created two masterpieces of landscape painting: a soulful painting street with shining, fresh, clean, colors and paintings View of the city of Delft . In the 60s, Vermeer's work became more refined, and his painting became colder. ( Girl with a pearl earring).
In the late 60s, the artist often depicted richly furnished rooms where ladies and gentlemen played music and had gallant conversations.
In the last years of Vermeer's life, his financial situation deteriorated greatly. The demand for paintings fell sharply, the painter was forced to take out loans to feed eleven children and other family members. This probably hastened the approach of death. It is not known what happened - an acute illness, or depression due to finances, but Vermeer was buried in 1675 in the family crypt in Delft.
Vermeer's individual art after his death was not appreciated by his contemporaries. Interest in him was revived only in the 19th century, thanks to the work of art critic and art historian Etienne Théophile Thoré, who “discovered” Vermeer for the general public.
Conclusion
Appeal to reality helped expand the artistic possibilities of Dutch art and enriched its genre theme. If, until the 17th century, biblical and mythological themes were of great importance in European fine art, and other genres were poorly developed, then in Dutch art the relationship between genres changes dramatically. There is a rise in such genres as: everyday life, portrait, landscape, still life. Biblical and mythological subjects themselves in Dutch art are largely losing their previous forms of embodiment and are now interpreted as everyday paintings.
For all its achievements, Dutch art also carried some specific features of limitation - a narrow range of subjects and motifs. Another disadvantage: only some masters sought to find their deep basis in phenomena.
But in many compositional paintings and portraits, the images are of the deepest nature, and the landscapes show the true and real nature. This became a distinctive feature of Dutch art. Thus, painters made great breakthroughs in art by mastering the difficult and complex skill of painting images of a person's inner world and experiences.
The test gave me the opportunity to test my creative abilities, replenish my theoretical knowledge, and learn more about Dutch artists and their works.
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In the 17th century, the Dutch school of painting became one of the leading in Europe. It was here, for the first time in the history of world art, that objects of the surrounding reality turned out to be a source of creative inspiration and artistic intent. In Dutch art of this time, the formation of an entire system of genres, which began in the Renaissance, was completed. In portraits, everyday paintings, landscapes and still lifes, artists with rare skill and warmth conveyed their impressions of the surrounding nature and simple life. They reflected the collective image of Holland - a young republic that defended its independence in the war with Spain.
"Morning of a young lady." 1660 France Miris the Elder. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
Paintings by artists on everyday themes (or genre paintings) depicting a person in a familiar, everyday environment reflected the established forms of life, behavior and communication of people belonging to various classes of Dutch society. Intended to decorate the interiors of the houses of merchants, artisans or wealthy peasants, paintings by Dutch artists were small in size. Artists made money by selling paintings that were painted with the possibility of detailed viewing at close range in mind. This, in turn, gave rise to a particularly careful, subtle style of writing.
"Society on the Terrace" 1620 Esais Van De Velde. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
Throughout the 17th century, Dutch genre painting underwent significant evolution. During its formation, at the beginning of the century, plots on the theme of leisure, entertainment of young rich Dutchmen, or scenes from the life of officers were common. Such paintings were called “banquets”, “societies”, “concerts”. Their painting was distinguished by its variegation of color and highly joyful tone. Works of this kind include the painting “Society on the Terrace” by Esaias van de Velde.
By the beginning of the 30s, the formation of the Dutch genre painting was completed. Crowded “societies” gave way to small-figured compositions. The image of the environment surrounding a person began to play a large role. There has been a division of genre painting along social lines: subjects on themes from the life of the bourgeoisie, and scenes from the life of peasants and the urban poor. Both paintings were intended to decorate the interior.
"Fight". 1637 Adrian Van Ostade. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
One of the most famous artists who worked in the “peasant genre” was Adrian van Ostade. In the early period of his work, the depiction of peasants in his paintings was distinguished by an emphasized comic nature, sometimes reaching the point of caricature. Thus, in the painting “Fight”, those fighting, illuminated by harsh light, seem not to be living people, but to puppets, whose faces are like masks, distorted by grimaces of anger. The juxtaposition of cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light and shadow further enhance the impression of grotesqueness in the scene.
"Village Musicians". 1635 Adrian Van De Ostade 1635 Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
In the 1650s, changes occurred in Adrian Ostade's painting. The artist turned to calmer subjects, depicting a person during his usual activities, most often in moments of rest. This is, for example, the interior painting “Village Musicians”. Ostade skillfully conveys the concentration of the “musicians” who are passionate about their work, depicting with barely noticeable humor the children watching them through the window. The variety and softness of the play of light and shadow, the greenish-brown color scheme unite people and their environment into a single whole.
"Winter View". 1640 Isaac Van Ostade. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
Adrian’s brother Isaac van Ostade, who died early, also worked in the “peasant genre.” He depicted the life of rural Holland, in whose nature a person felt at home. The painting “Winter View” presents a typical Dutch landscape with a gray sky hanging heavily over the ground, a frozen river, on the banks of which a village is located.
"The patient and the doctor." 1660 Jan Steen. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
The genre theme of the art of the Ostade brothers was continued by Jan Steen, a talented master who, with a sense of humor, noted the characteristic details of the life and relationships of the characters in his paintings. In the painting “Revelers,” the artist himself looks at the viewer cheerfully and slyly, sitting next to his wife, who has fallen asleep after a cheerful feast. In the film “The Sick Woman and the Doctor,” Jan Steen skillfully reveals the plot of an imaginary illness through the facial expressions and gestures of the characters.
"Room in a Dutch House." Peter Janssens. Canvas, oil. State Hermitage Museum
In the fifties and sixties of the 17th century, the themes of genre paintings gradually narrowed. The figurative structure of the paintings changes. They become calmer, more intimate, more lyrical contemplation and quiet thoughtfulness appear in them. This stage is represented by the work of such artists as: Pieter de Hooch, Gerard Terborch, Gabriel Metsu, Peter Janssens. Their works embodied a poetic and somewhat idealized image of the everyday life of the Dutch bourgeoisie, which once fought for its rights and independence, and has now achieved sustainable prosperity. Thus, the interior painting “Room in a Dutch House” by Peter Janssens depicts a cozy room flooded with sunlight with sunbeams playing on the floor and walls, while the painting “The Old Lady by the Fireplace” by Jacob Vrel shows a room with a fireplace immersed in soft twilight. The choice of composition in the works of both artists emphasizes the unity of man and his environment.
"A glass of lemonade." 1664 Gerard Terborch. Host (transfer from tree), oil. State Hermitage Museum
During these years, Dutch genre artists for the first time tried to reflect in their works the depth of a person’s inner life. In everyday life situations they found the opportunity to reflect the diverse world of subtle experiences. But this can only be seen with a careful and thorough examination of the picture. Thus, in Gerard Terborch’s painting “A Glass of Lemonade,” the subtle language of gestures, hand touches, and eye contact reveals a whole range of feelings and relationships between the characters.
"Breakfast". 1660 Gabriel Metsu. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
The objective world begins to play a large role in genre paintings of this period. It no longer only characterizes the material and emotional environment of a person’s life, but also expresses the diversity of relationships between a person and the outside world. The set of objects, their arrangement, a complex system of symbols, as well as the gestures of the characters - everything plays a role in creating the figurative structure of the picture.
"Revelers." 1660 Jan Steen. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum
Dutch genre painting was not distinguished by a wide variety of subjects. Artists limited themselves to depicting only a certain range of characters and their activities. But, with their help, Dutch genre painting was able to convey a reliable image of morals, customs, and ideas about human life in the 17th century.
In preparing the publication, materials from open sources were used.
Having won the fight against Spain for its independence, bourgeois Holland became the most economically developed state in Western Europe. The main Dutch city of Amsterdam has emerged as one of the largest shopping centers in Europe.
Along with the economy, Dutch painting is also developing. Unlike other Western European countries, baroque paintings of palaces and castles were not popular in Holland - the weakness of the nobility served as an obstacle to the development of decorative art. The Calvinist Church of Holland also did not seek to decorate its churches with works of painting.
Nevertheless, painting flourished in Holland: artists received numerous orders from private individuals. Even Dutch peasants could hang a small painting in their homes - these artists’ creations were so cheap.
In the 17th century Over two thousand artists worked in little Holland. They put the production of paintings on stream, produced canvases in whole batches and handed them over to sellers. Almost every master performed from two to five compositions per week.
Often the production of paintings outpaced demand, so in order to feed themselves, artists had to simultaneously engage in other work. Such famous masters as J. Steen, M. Gobbema, J. van Goyen and many others were at the same time employees, gardeners, and tavern keepers.
Typically, painters specialized in one specific topic. For example, H. Averkamp painted winter views, E. van der Poel depicted night fires, G. Terborch and G. Metsu - everyday scenes, P. Claes and V. K. Heda - still lifes-breakfasts.
Very often, artists worked collectively on one picture: one painted the sky, another - grass and trees, the third - human figures. The most successful works that were successful with the public were copied and served as a model for the creation of countless versions.
Although the art of talented painters was subordinated to commercial goals, the masters usually managed to avoid falsehood. Most of these paintings are distinguished by their realism, integrity and clarity of composition, freshness of color and excellent execution technique.
The portrait genre became widespread in Dutch painting. Various organizations played a major role in the life of the country (the shooting society, groups of representatives of the medical corporation and trade shops), which contributed to the emergence of a group public portrait.
The long-term struggle with the Spanish colonialists sharpened the sense of national identity, so in painting, in addition to realism, the depiction of characteristic national features was especially welcomed. Artists painted the sea and ships, livestock, flowers. In addition to portraiture, genres such as landscape and still life developed. There was also religious painting, but it lacked the element of mysticism; biblical stories were presented
by the artist rather as everyday scenes.
Frans Hals
Frans Hals was born around 1581 in Antwerp into a weaver's family. As a young man, he came to Haarlem, where he lived almost constantly until his death (in 1616 he visited Antwerp, and in the mid-1630s - Amsterdam). Little is known about Hulse's life. In 1610 he entered the Guild of St. Luke, and in 1616 he entered the chamber of rhetoricians (amateur actors).
Very quickly Hals became one of the most famous portrait painters in Haarlem. In the XV-XVI centuries. In the painting of the Netherlands, there was a tradition of painting portraits only of representatives of the ruling circles, famous people and artists. Hals's art is deeply democratic: in his portraits we can see an aristocrat, a wealthy citizen, an artisan, and even a person from the very bottom. The artist does not try to idealize those depicted; the main thing for him is their naturalness and uniqueness. His nobles behave as relaxed as representatives of the lower strata of society, who in Khals’s paintings are depicted as cheerful people who are not devoid of self-esteem.
Group portraits occupy a large place in the artist’s work. The best works of this genre were portraits of officers of the St. George rifle company (1627) and the St. Adrian rifle company (1633). Each character in the paintings has its own distinct personality, and at the same time, these works are distinguished by their integrity.
Hals also painted commissioned portraits depicting wealthy burghers and their families in relaxed poses (“Portrait of Isaac Massa,” 1626; “Portrait of Hethuisen,” 1637). Hals’s images are lively and dynamic; it seems that the people in the portraits are talking to an invisible interlocutor or addressing the viewer.
Representatives of the popular environment in Khals’s portraits are distinguished by their vivid expressiveness and spontaneity. In the images of street boys, fishermen, musicians, and tavern visitors, one can feel the author’s sympathy and respect. His “Gypsy” is remarkable. The smiling young woman seems surprisingly alive, her sly gaze directed at her interlocutor, invisible to the audience. Hals does not idealize his model, but the image of a cheerful, disheveled gypsy delights with its perky charm.
Very often, Hulse's portraits include elements of a genre scene. These are the images of children singing or playing musical instruments (“Singing Boys”, 1624-1625). The famous “Malle Babbe” (early 1630s) was performed in the same spirit, representing a well-known tavern owner in Haarlem, whom visitors called the Haarlem Witch behind her back. The artist almost grotesquely depicted a woman with a huge beer mug and an owl on her shoulder.
In the 1640s. The country is showing signs of a turning point. Only a few decades have passed since the victory of the revolution, and the bourgeoisie has already ceased to be a progressive class based on democratic traditions. The truthfulness of Hals painting no longer attracts wealthy clients who want to see themselves in portraits better than they really are. But Hulse did not abandon realism, and his popularity plummeted. In the painting of this period, notes of sadness and disappointment appear (“Portrait of a Man in a Wide-brimmed Hat”). His palette becomes stricter and calmer.
At the age of 84, Hulse created two of his masterpieces: group portraits of regents (trustees) and regents of a nursing home (1664). These latest works by the Dutch master are distinguished by their emotionality and strong individuality of images. The images of the regents - old men and women - emanate sadness and death. This feeling is also emphasized by the color scheme in black, gray and white.
Hals died in 1666 in deep poverty. His truthful, life-affirming art had a great influence on many Dutch artists.
Rembrandt
In the 1640-1660s. Dutch painting was flourishing. The most significant artist of this time was Rembrandt.
Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn was born in 1606 in Leiden. His father was a wealthy miller. His parents dreamed of a good education for their son and sent him to a Latin school, after which Rembrandt entered the University of Leiden. But the young man was attracted to art. He left the university and began studying with the painter Jacob Swannenburch. Three years later, the young artist went to Amsterdam, where he began taking lessons from Pieter Lastman.
In 1624 Rembrandt returned to Leiden. Here he rented a studio together with the painter Jan Lievens. The artist works a lot from life, painting not only in the studio, but also on the street and at the city bazaar.
At the end of the 1620s. Rembrandt gained popularity among the residents of Leiden. He received many orders and his first student was Gerard Dou, who later became a fairly famous painter.
Rembrandt's early paintings are characterized by careful composition and conscientious execution. At the same time, they are characterized by some stiffness (“The Torment of St. Sebastian”, 1625).
In 1631, Rembrandt settled in Amsterdam. His fame quickly spread throughout the city, and orders poured in for the painter. Rembrandt's personal life was also successful: in 1634 he married Saskia van Uylenburg, a girl from a famous bourgeois family. The marriage brought the artist a significant fortune, which provided him with creative independence and allowed him to start collecting works of art and antiques.
Rembrandt enjoyed happiness in the company of his beloved wife, whom he depicted many times in portraits. Saskia often served as a model for paintings with a wide variety of themes (“Flora,” 1634; “Self-portrait with Saskia on her knees,” c. 1639).
Rembrandt's work during this period is diverse; he painted historical, mythological and religious compositions, portraits, everyday scenes, landscapes, still lifes, paintings with images of animals. But the main object of his attention is man. Not only in portraits, but also in his other works, the artist strives to convey the character and inner world of his heroes.
A remarkable master of the portrait genre, only in the 1630s. Rembrandt executed more than sixty commissioned portraits. The main thing for a painter is not the external resemblance to the model, but the depth of the inner world, the strength of mental movements and experiences. The group portrait “The Anatomy of Doctor Tulp” (1632) was greeted with delight by his contemporaries. The artist made changes to the traditional composition of the classic group portrait, arranging the figures not in a row, as was customary, but freely. This construction gave the image life and naturalness.
At the end of the 1630s. Rembrandt became the most famous master in Holland. His masterpiece, the famous “Danae” (1636), dates back to this period, the craftsmanship of which surpasses everything that was created by his contemporaries
artist. The perfection of its composition and the richness of the color scheme, designed in golden shades, are striking. It seems that there is nothing superfluous in this work; every detail is carefully thought out by the author. With the help of a free and lively brushstroke, the master conveys the lightness of the bedspread, the folds of heavy curtains and draperies. The flexible plasticity of the young woman lying on the bed and the soft golden shades of the body, illuminated by soft light, are striking. Although Danaë does not shine with ideal beauty, her image delights the viewer with its lively charm and freshness.
In the 1630s. The artist also works a lot in etching. He is attracted by everyday motives (“Seller of Rat Poison”, 1632). Elements of genre are also inherent in works with biblical themes (“The Return of the Prodigal Son”, 1636). One of the best etchings of this period is “The Death of Mary” (1639), emotional and imbued with a feeling of deep sorrow. The remarkable work “Christ Healing the Sick” (the so-called “Leaf of One Hundred Guilders” - this name indicates the cost of the work) is also distinguished by the complexity of the composition and the monumental grandeur of the images.
In the 1640s. Rembrandt becomes the most famous and highest paid painter in Amsterdam. He was commissioned for portraits and compositions for the palace of the Dutch Stadtholder in The Hague. Many aspiring artists seek to study in his workshop. The fame of Rembrandt's art extends beyond the borders of Holland. Several paintings by the famous master are kept in the palace of the English King Charles I.
Rembrandt's talent was evident in his realistic and expressive still lifes ("Bull's Carcass") and landscapes ("Landscape with a Mill", c. 1650). Subtle lyricism is inherent in the unassuming Dutch landscapes, striking the viewer with their almost tangible reality.
The death of his beloved wife in 1642 alienated Rembrandt from her noble relatives. The artist stopped communicating with his acquaintances from aristocratic society. The changes in the master’s life were reflected in his painting, which became deeper and more focused. If Rembrandt's early works are distinguished by a calm and even mood, now notes of anxiety and doubt begin to sound in his paintings. The palette, which is dominated by red and golden shades, also changes.
The canvas “David and Jonathan” (1642, Hermitage, St. Petersburg), executed in golden-pink and golden-blue tones, is distinguished by its vivid expressiveness.
All these new features in Rembrandt’s painting did not meet with understanding among his contemporaries. The large monumental composition “Night Watch” (1642) caused discontent. The painting received this name in the 19th century. In fact, the action takes place not at night, but during the day, in sunlight, which confirms the nature of the shadows.
Over time, the colors darkened, and only restoration carried out in 1946-1947 showed that the color scheme of this work was once much lighter.
The painting depicts the riflemen of Captain Banning Coke's company. The customer expected to see a traditional ceremonial portrait (a scene of a feast or a commander presenting his subordinates to the viewer). Rembrandt created a geo-
roico-historical painting depicting the performance of riflemen on the orders of the captain. The characters are excited and dynamic; the commander gives orders, the standard bearer raises the banner, the drummer beats the drum, the riflemen load their weapons. Here a little girl with a rooster at her belt is spinning around out of nowhere.
During these years, Hendrikje Stoffels appeared in Rembrandt's life, first a maid, and then his wife, who became his faithful friend and assistant. The artist still works a lot. He creates his famous “Holy Family” (1645), in which the religious theme is interpreted as a genre theme. Along with biblical compositions, the painter painted realistic landscapes with images of the village (“Winter View”, 1646). His portraits of this period are distinguished by his desire to show the individual characteristics of his models.
In the 1650s. the number of orders is significantly reduced. Rembrandt is experiencing great financial difficulties. He faces complete ruin, because the debt associated with the purchase of a house during the life of his first wife, Saskia, has still not been paid. In 1656, the artist was declared insolvent, and his art collection and all his property were sold at auction. Rembrandt's family had to move to the poor Jewish quarter of Amsterdam.
Despite all the adversities, the talent of the great painter does not dry out. But now the criterion of his skill is completely different. In Rembrandt's later works, colorful strokes appear sharply on the surface of the canvas. Now the colors in his paintings serve not only to convey the external appearance of the characters and the image of the interior - it is the coloring that takes on the semantic load of the work. Thus, the feeling of intense drama in the painting “Assur, Haman and Esther” (1660) is created through a complex tonal range and special lighting effects.
Deprived of orders, living in deep poverty, Rembrandt does not stop writing. He creates expressive and spiritual portraits, for which relatives and friends serve as models (“Portrait of the artist’s brother’s wife,” 1654; “Portrait of an old man in red,” 1652-1654; “Portrait of the son Titus reading,” 1657; “Portrait of Hendrikje Stoffels at windows", ca. 1659).
The son Titus, who has finally received the fortune of his deceased mother, is trying to protect his father from material deprivation and create conditions for him to work peacefully. But misfortunes continued to haunt the artist: Hendrickje died in 1663, and Titus followed her a few years later.
It was during this tragic time that the old, lonely artist created his masterpieces, distinguished by their monumental grandeur and spirituality (“David and Uriah,” 1665-1666; “The Return of the Prodigal Son,” c. 1668-1669).
Rembrandt died in 1669, forgotten by everyone. Only in the 18th century. his art was finally understood and appreciated.
In the 1640-1660s. The leading genre in Dutch painting was the everyday genre. The paintings depicting the most ordinary moments of reality are surprisingly poetic and lyrical. The main object of attention of painters is man and the world around him. Most genre compositions are distinguished by a calm narrative and lack of drama. They talk about the household chores of the mistress of the house (buying provisions, taking care of children, doing handicrafts), about the entertainment of the Dutch burgher (playing cards, receiving guests, concerts). Artists depict everything that happens in the house of a wealthy city dweller, ignoring the social side of a person’s life.
Genre painters were very popular: G. Dou, whose paintings were sold at very high prices, A. van Ostade, who painted scenes of peasant life (“Country Concert”), J. Steen, whose favorite themes were scenes of fun and holidays (“Merry Society” ), G. Terborch, whose elegant painting represented the life of a rich burgher family (“A Glass of Lemonade”), G. Metsu with his ingenuous storytelling (“Sick Child”), P. de Hooch, who created contemplative and lyrical canvases (“Mistress and Maid ").
K. Fabritius, who lived a short life (died in Delft in the explosion of a gunpowder warehouse), sought to expand the scope of the everyday genre. One of his best works is “The Raising of Lazarus” (c. 1643), notable for its drama and almost monumental scope. His portraits and self-portraits are also remarkable, putting the artist on a par with F. Hals and Rembrandt.
The fate of E. de Fabricius, a talented master of everyday scenes and works depicting church interiors (“Market in the port”, “Interior with a woman at the harpsichord”) is tragic. The artist did not seek to pander to the tastes of the bourgeois public, so his works, which were not successful with his contemporaries, were sold for pennies. Often Fabricius was forced to pay them off for debts to homeowners. On a winter night in 1692, a seventy-five-year-old artist, thrown out of his house by his owner, hanged himself on the railing of a bridge. A similar fate was typical for many Dutch painters who did not want to give up realistic traditions to please the public.
Jan Wermeer of Delft
A prominent representative of Dutch genre painting is Jan Vermeer, nicknamed Delft after his place of birth and activity. The painter was born in 1623 into the family of a painting and silk merchant. Little is known about Wermeer's life. Perhaps his teacher was C. Fabricius. In 1653, the artist became a member of the Guild of St. Luke and married the daughter of a wealthy townsman, Catherine Bolnes. In Delft he enjoyed respect and fame and lived in a large house located on the market square.
Vermeer worked on his paintings very slowly and thoroughly, carefully recording every detail. Painting could not provide a comfortable existence for the artist’s family, although his canvases enjoyed great success. This is probably why Vermeer began selling paintings, continuing his father’s work.
Already in Vermeer’s first works, a combination of realism and a certain amount of idealization of images, characteristic of his work, appears (“Diana with the Nymphs”, “Christ with Martha and Mary” - both before 1656). The next work, a large-figure canvas “At the Pimp” (1656), painted on a plot used by many painters, is distinguished by its originality of execution. An ordinary everyday scene for the artist acquires almost monumental significance. The painting stands out among other works with a similar theme for its bold coloring, sustained in pure yellow, red, black and white colors, and the bright expressiveness of the images.
Subsequently, Vermeer turned to chamber compositions traditional for Dutch painting. Like other Dutch masters, he depicts events taking place in rich burgher houses. The artist’s favorite image is of a girl reading a letter or trying on a necklace. His canvases depict simple everyday scenes: a maid gives a letter to her mistress, a gentleman brings a glass of wine to the lady. But these paintings, simple in composition, amaze with their integrity, harmony and lyricism; their images attract with their naturalness and calm poetry.
In the second half of the 1650s. the artist created his most wonderful works. The deeply lyrical “Sleeping Girl”, “Glass of Wine”, “Girl with a Letter” are marked with a warm feeling. Many Dutch painters of that time depicted maids busy at work in their paintings, but only Vermeer’s image of a woman from the people has features of true beauty and greatness (“Maid with a Jug of Milk”).
Vermeer is a true virtuoso in conveying the essence of the world of things with the help of visual means. The still lifes in his paintings are executed with great skill. A dish with apples and plums, standing on a table covered with a patterned tablecloth in the canvas “Girl with a Letter,” looks amazingly beautiful and natural.
In the painting “The Maid with a Jug of Milk,” the bread and milk flowing in a thick stream from the jug amaze with their freshness.
Light plays a big role in Vermeer's works. It fills the space of the canvases, creating the impression of extraordinary airiness; models shapes and penetrates paints, making them glow from within. It is thanks to this amount of light and air that a special emotional elation is created in most of Vermeer’s works.
The painter's remarkable skill was also evident in landscape painting. A small corner of the city, enveloped in the humid atmosphere of a cloudy day, is reproduced by the clear and simple composition of “Street” (c. 1658). The rain-washed city appears clean and fresh in the painting “View of Delft” (between 1658 and 1660). The sun's rays break through the soft silvery clouds, creating many bright reflections on the surface of the water. The sonorous coloring with its subtle color transitions gives the picture expressiveness and harmony.
In the 1660s. Vermeer's painting becomes more refined and elegant. The palette is also changing, now dominated by cool colorful shades (“Girl with a Pearl”). The main characters of the paintings are rich ladies and gentlemen surrounded by luxurious objects (“Love Letter”, ca. 1670).
Jan Wermeer of Delft. Maid with a jug of milk. Between 1657 and 1660
Jan Wermeer of Delft. Painter's workshop. OK. 1665
In the last period of Vermeer’s life, his works become superficial and somewhat far-fetched (“Allegory of Faith”), and the palette loses its richness and sonority. But even in these years, individual works of the artist amaze with the same expressive power. Such is his “Painter's Workshop” (1665), in which Vermeer depicted himself at work, and the paintings “Astronomer” and “Geographer”, depicting scientists.
The fate of Vermeer, like many other Dutch masters, is tragic. At the end of his life, the sick artist, who had lost most of his previous customers, was forced to move his large family from his previous home to a cheaper home. Over the past five years he has not painted a single painting. The painter died in 1675. His art was forgotten for a long time, and only in the middle of the 19th century. Vermeer was appreciated and placed on a par with such Dutch masters as Rembrandt and F. Hals.
