The new historical community of people is the Soviet people. The Soviet people as a special ethnic group

Introduction

1 Definition 2 History of the concept 3 The fate of some peoples within the city. 4 Legal basis 5 Social and demographic structure 6 Ethnic structure 7 Culture 8 After the USSR

Literature

10 Footnotes

A poster from Stalin's times with the inscription "The whole world will be ours!"

Soviet people (rus. Soviet people) - katoikonym, the official name of the population of the USSR, often an ideological and propaganda cliché that served to conceal ethnic origin and composition of the population. The concept of g.r. combined, first of all, the socio-political aspect (belonging to the “Country of Soviets”), emphasized the political difference between the “Soviet people” and the previously existing ones - the population and peoples of the Russian Empire - and invented “a new historical social and international unity of the people.”

The language of "interethnic communication" g. was officially considered Russian, so many researchers believe that the concept of g.r. also contributed to permanent Russification.

Soviet people."

According to the ideological definition established in the USSR, this is -

According to the official Soviet communist doctrine, the Soviet people are not a national, but a supranational, multinational formation; they are not the final, but a transitional phase in the development of interethnic relations from individual nations to multinational communist societies. When communism wins on a global scale, it will reach the complete merger of nations: the formation of a nationless society.

The leaders of the USSR and theorists of Soviet national policy recognized that the creation Soviet people is a party-driven process. In this regard, the Soviet people are an artificial ideological and political construct, thrown by the leaders of the CPSU to the non-Russian peoples of the USSR as a tool in the policy of overcoming their aspirations for state independence, the elimination of their rights in the field of public administration, economics, education, culture, the destruction of ethnic and spiritual-cultural identity peoples and their actual transformation into Russians.

Concept Soviet people appeared in the mid-1930s pp., during the pogrom of non-Russian peoples, the destruction of their cultural elite and national party cadres, long campaigns against so-called bourgeois nationalism and the cessation of all struggle against Russian great-power chauvinism.

Official concepts Soviet people adopted for the first time in the resolutions of the 18th Congress of the CPSU (1939) and then included in the charter of the CPSU. However, an attempt to define the concept of the Soviet people was made by Nikita Khrushchev at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU (1961): “A new historical community of people has emerged in the USSR different nationalities having common character traits, common socialist homeland - the USSR, common economic base, socialist economy, common social class structure, common worldview - Marxism-Leninism, common goal - building communism, many common features in a spiritual form, in psychology." However, this definition was included in the then approved new program of the CPSU. It appeared in 1970, in the theses of the CPSU Central Committee on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of Lenin’s birth, and was repeated in Leonid Brezhnev’s speeches at congresses of the CPSU.

However, already at the 22nd Congress (1961) a number of instructions were given (they are in the new program of the CPSU, adopted at that congress), which had to consolidate the existence and growth of the Soviet people: mixing of the population through the exchange of personnel, multinationality of the union republics and the disappearance of the meaning of borders between them, further reduction of the differences between the peoples of the USSR, the unifying power of the Russian language as a language of interethnic harmony, the inadmissibility of national “self-restraint”, the need to create supra-republican zones with bodies that disdain the governments of the union republics. An even stronger impetus for the implementation of the concept of the Soviet people was given by the 24th Congress of the CPSU (1971).

In official decrees and social science literature of the Communist Party later years indicated, in particular, such common features Soviet people, as an ideology that unites all citizens regardless of nationality, the only Soviet culture, the growth of a sense of belonging to a new historical community, and the fact that within the framework of the Soviet people new type Soviet people, who also, while maintaining national characteristics have common Soviet features. The priority of all-Union interests, in particular in the economy, over the interests of individual peoples of the USSR (the so-called single national economic complex) was also emphasized. This policy of the CPSU caused serious concern among the non-Russian peoples of the USSR, and already in the early 1960s pp. became one of the reasons for the emergence of national resistance.

At the same time, attempts were made in the USSR to “scientifically substantiate” the concept of the Soviet people as a “sociological category.” This issue has been the subject of research in numerous papers and conferences. During the discussion, there were differences of opinion regarding the future of socialist nations and the relationship between them and the people, the role of the Russian language in the life of non-Russian peoples and the definition of the very concept of “Soviet people” as a sociological phenomenon and the fact that it is already a new Soviet nation, therefore, the beginning of the end of individual nations THE USSR. The issues of the Soviet people are also partially touched upon by the authors of Samvid literature, in particular Ivan Dzyuba, who claims that the essence of the concept of the Soviet people is to “justify and justify a widely deployed course of Russification.”

An integral ideological component of the concept of the Soviet people is Soviet patriotism, behind the official definition - the love of citizens of the USSR for their Fatherland, devotion to Soviet society, the state system and the cause of communism, was a tool in the fight against the national aspirations of non-Russians, as opposed to their patriotism.

Regardless of official statements and publications, the CPSU Central Committee pursued a consistent policy of state, political, economic and spiritual integration of the peoples of the USSR. It is carried out by stimulating migration, mixing the population and creating multinational work teams to work both in individual regions of the USSR country and in administrative districts or specific residential areas of cities and large settlements. In particular, in various industrial new buildings, in factories and on state farms, where workers of many nationalities of the USSR work, all of them are deprived of any rights of a national minority and are doomed to Russification and themselves become an instrument of Russification of other non-Russian peoples. At the same time, Russian workers and party and state leaders are sent to non-Russian territory. Thus, between 1959 and 1970, the percentage of the Russian population in Ukraine increased from 16.9% to 19.4%, Belarus from 8.2% to 10.4%, and Moldova from 10.2% to 11.6%. Latvia from 26.6% to 29.2%, Estonia from 20.1% to 24.7%, while Russians are the only ones settling. hours in the cities of non-Russian republics. The degree of urbanization of peoples who have their own republics is different: the highest is Russians (68%), followed by Armenians (64.8%), Estonians (55.1%), Latvians (52.7%), Ukrainians (48.7%) the lowest in Central Asian peoples%) and Moldovans (20.4%). The level of urbanization of the entire population of the republic is also uneven: according to the 1970 census, the highest is in Estonia (65%), Russia. (62%), Armenian (59%) and Ukrainian. (55%), the lowest is in Moldova. (32%).

Based on the above statistical data, there is no need to talk about the equal degree of development of the various peoples and republics of the USSR, which should create the basis for the existence of Russian science. It is even more disturbed when we're talking about on the state of higher education and the number of scientific workers of individual peoples of the USSR. Thus, among the peoples of the USSR that have republics (with the exception of Georgians and Armenians), Russians have a high percentage of students and a significantly higher percentage of researchers and graduate students than their percentage among the population of the USSR. Higher education should be Russians living in non-Russian republics and working there in the party and state apparatuses, this determines their dominant role among non-Russian peoples.

Discrimination against non-Russian peoples and the privileged position of Russians is also manifested in the fact that in all non-Russian republics there are Russian schools, press, and cultural institutions, but the peoples of the RSFSR do not have such privileges. Moreover, children of non-Russians also study in Russian schools in non-Russian republics, their network (even at the lowest level) is constantly growing, and most universities and technical schools have been translated into Russian, which has great importance in the policy of Russification of non-Russians. Parallel classes in Russian and non-Russian languages ​​of instruction are also common in nominally non-Russian schools. The goals of Russification are served by officially promoted mixed marriages with significant participation of Russians. (In the second half of the 1960s, pp. In the cities of Ukraine there were 26% mixed friends; they predominated among Ukrainians living in the diaspora in the RSFSR).

Contrary to the assurances of CPSU leaders about the equalization of the class structure of individual peoples, the USSR supposedly predetermines the existence of the Soviet people as a multinational, but continuous socio-political. communities of people, the differences in the class structure of individual peoples of the USSR are too striking. They are noticeable if you compare the class structure of the indigenous nationalities of individual republics. In particular, Russians are ahead of other nations in the percentage of workers (especially those working in industry) and employees, but only a small percentage of them are collective farmers.

The dominant role is the role of Russians in the CPSU, in particular in the central party, as well as the state apparatus. The Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee consists (1975) exclusively of Russians. They also (along with Georgians) have a percentage higher number of members of the CPSU compared to their percentage among the population of the USSR: 61.0% and 53.3%; Ukrainian: 15.9% and 16.9%; Belarusians: 3.% and 3.7%; Moldovans: 0.4% and 1.1%, etc..

The dominant position of Russians is reflected in the amount of printed literature. Of all the books and brochures (number, units) that were printed in the USSR in 1973, 80.4% were in Russian, periodicals(including magazines, but without newspapers) - 85.4%, newspapers - 62.3% (according to their annual circulation 80.7%). Ukrainian language respectively: 3.9%, 2.9%, 20.0% (7.8%).

Inequality between the peoples of the USSR is also intensified by the fact that the CPSU strives to weaken the national differences of non-Russian peoples and strengthen everything that brings them closer to Russia. Hence the constant war of the CPSU against the history, tradition, culture, language of non-Russian peoples by falsifying them or hushing up the liberation struggle against tsarism and the Soviets. authorities, accusing them of so-called bourgeois nationalism (such accusations are not leveled against Russians).

There is also discrimination against non-Russian republics in the field of capital investments; they do not have capital accumulated in them, which goes to the all-Union budget without the participation of the authorities of the union republics. A similar thing happens in the field of economic planning and industrial location.

Concept of G. n. historically similar to the political concept of "Orthodoxy" (non-Orthodox were called "foreigners") and "Pan-Slavism" of all-imperial nationality (citizenship) and "all-imperial culture" in the former British and French empires.

The concept of G. n., which serves as a screen for the policy of state and ethnic unification of the USSR, is at odds with the main trends of social and interethnic development in the USSR itself and outside it. No people voluntarily renounce their national traits and dissolve into other peoples. Theorists of national policy of the CPSU attribute views on the removal of national isolation, the disappearance of national differences and the merging of nations to F. Engels. However, he did not speak about the merger and disappearance of nations, but about the interdependence and equality of developed nations under socialism.

Socio-political component

Unlike, for example, the Constitution and the United States, where the people are the subject of the state, the 1977 Constitution of the USSR said that

All power in the USSR belongs to the people (Chapter 1, Art. 2)

The people exercise state power through the Councils of People's Deputies (ibid.)

And:

The governing and guiding force of Soviet society, the core of its political system, state and public organizations is the Communist Party Soviet Union. (Chapter 1, Art. 6)

Thus, the Soviet people, both during the time of the “revolutionary” power of the Bolsheviks (“Dictatorship of the Proletariat”) led by Lenin, and later (the era of “mature socialism”) in the Basic Law of the country were assigned the role of an object - the “working masses”, who, under the leadership of the subject of the state and political power - the CPSU must "build communism."

Ethnic component

The USSR personifies the state unity of the Soviet people, unites all nations and nationalities for the purpose of jointly building communism (Chapter 8, Art. 70)

Revealing political will

The only time when the “Soviet people” were given their own right to vote was the “Referendum” provided for in Article 5, Chapter 1 of the USSR Constitution, which took place on March 17, 1991 and concerned the issue of “Preservation of the USSR.”

Soviet folk holidays festivities and rituals

Cm.. Also: Russification in the USSR

8. After the USSR

The collapse of the USSR (1991) proved in practice that the idea of ​​the “Soviet people”, both socio-political and ethnic community people, has not stood the test of time. In the USSR there was no equality not only between peoples, but also between individual social classes. Soviet society is essentially a class society, composed, on the one hand, of the privileged ruling stratum (the “Nomenklatura”) and, on the other, of the disenfranchised millions of peasants, workers and intelligentsia. This class society was brought about by the process of urbanization, which should erase the differences between rural and urban areas. In this regard, the claim of the CPSU that during the existence of the Soviet state the socio-political equality of citizens of the USSR was ensured is also false.

Currently, in the legal successor of the USSR - Russian Federation- the concept of “multinational Soviet people” was replaced by “multinational people of the Russian Federation”

IN last years in Russian propaganda wikipedia new term"Russkiy Mir" ("Russian world") is actively trying to spread in the territories of the former Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.

1. Law on languages ​​in the Ukrainian SSR (Russian)

2. Law on Languages ​​of the USSR (1990) (Russian)

3. Div. for example, L. Masenko: “Language policy in the USSR in the 60-80s” - from the book: “ Ukrainian language in the 20th century: the history of linguocide"

4. Great Soviet Encyclopedia (Russian)

5. The Constitution of the United States begins with the words: “We the people of the United States, in order to form a perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, establish the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of liberty, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States.” States."

6. The last, third (“Brezhneev”) edition of the Constitution of the USSR, 1977

Socialism, V.I. Lenin foresaw in 1914, “... creates new higher forms human community, when the legitimate needs and progressive aspirations of the working masses of every nationality will be satisfied for the first time in international unity, subject to the destruction of the current national barriers” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 26, p. 40). Soviet people represents multinational team workers of city and countryside, united by the commonality of the socialist system, Marxist-Leninist ideology, communist ideals of the working class, principles internationalism . U Soviet people unified supreme bodies of state power and government controlled USSR, for all owls. people established a single union citizenship. Common language interethnic communication in the USSR is Russian language .

In education Soviet people vital role belongs to the CPSU. Emphasizing the multinational composition and deeply international character of the working class party, Lenin wrote: “The party, in order to destroy every thought about its national character, gave itself the name not Russian, but Russian” (ibid., vol. 10, p. 267). By uniting in its ranks the most conscious part of friendly classes and groups, nations and nationalities, the CPSU expresses the vital interests of all Soviet people, cements the community of owls. people in all walks of life.

The material and spiritual community of Soviet people received comprehensive development under the conditions of mature socialism. The strengthening of the social homogeneity of Soviet society, its socio-political unity, the development of the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat into a state of the whole people led to an even greater strengthening of the alliance and friendship of all classes and social groups, nations and nationalities of the USSR, whose representatives have more and more all-Soviet, international features. In the conditions of mature socialism and the construction of communism, the international economic community strengthened and reached high level All-Union economy is an integral national economic complex, including the national economy of all republics and developing according to a unified state plan in the interests of the entire country and each republic.

Lit.: Marx K., Engels F., German Ideology, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 3; them, About Poland, ibid., vol. 4; Lenin V.I., To the Jewish workers, Complete. collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 10; his, The Position and Tasks of the Socialist International, ibid., vol. 26; his, Theses to the Congress of the Communist International, ibid., vol. 41; Materials of the XXIV Congress of the CPSU, M., 1971; Brezhnev L.I., On the fiftieth anniversary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, M., 1972; Roads of Friendship, M., 1972; Kaltakhchyan S. T., Leninism about the essence of the nation and the path to the formation of an international community of people, M., 1969; Kim M.P., The Soviet people - a new historical community, M., 1972.

S. T. Kaltakhchyan.

Article about the word " Soviet people" in big Soviet Encyclopedia has been read 11523 times

The society built as a result of such a strategy remained an indivisible people or even an enlarged, scaled ethnic group, although in form it represented itself as a collection of civil individuals consciously united in a special type of community.
In such a situation, Soviet society could not be called a “nation,” especially in political sense, "Soviet nation". The Russian language, formally presented as an "idiom", served the function of the Koine, as many ethnic groups continued to interpret it as an artificial instrument interethnic communication, and easily returned to their languages ​​after the collapse of the USSR.
The Soviet people were precisely a people that retained ethnic groups within themselves, which were either ethnic groups that never moved to the phase of the people (Laos), or those who were previously a people (as a historical community), but lost the possibility of independent participation in history. If we were dealing with a “Soviet nation,” then this ethnicity would have to be qualitatively overcome and erased.
Stalin's national policy
The extreme complexity of the problem of defining “nationality” did not prevent the Stalinist regime from pursuing a pragmatic policy regarding this
noses This practical policy was based on the principle of strengthening the political and territorial unity of the USSR, despite the declared “rights of nations.” Stalin was interested in the USSR being an essentially unitary state, and for this, not a single ethnic group should have the opportunity to turn into a “people” and set as its goal the creation of an independent sovereign statehood. For this purpose, Stalin sought to include zones with ethnic population, different from its main mass. In some cases, he deliberately separated closely related ethnic groups into different administrative divisions. This is how Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia were created, both populated by Turks (Balkars and Karachais) and Circassians (Circassians and Kabardians) in inverse proportions: in the first case, Kabardians predominated numerically, in the second - Karachay Turks. Georgia included Abkhazians (Adyghe group) and Ossetians (Iranian group, Indo-Europeans), ethnically different from Georgians. Kazakhstan included large areas populated by ethnic Russians. The territories of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were demarcated completely arbitrarily. All borders in the USSR were of relative importance, since in conditions of actual unitarity they were only administrative conventions.
At the same time, in the Republics and, especially, in the republican committees of the Communist Party, high positions were most often occupied by ethnic Russians, who were considered by Stalin as natural bearers of centripetal tendencies. A policy of intensive Russification was pursued, and where “national” forms of writing were created, the Soviet government tried to introduce the Cyrillic alphabet whenever possible.
This created the prerequisites for the integration of the Soviet people into a homogeneous socialist society.
Those trends that contributed to the growth of this homogeneity were encouraged by Stalin; those that interfered were uprooted. At the same time, Stalin, being a Caucasian, was very attentive to ethnic factor, trying to combine repression against all manifestations of nationalism with a series of political and administrative steps that would attract the approval of ethnic groups. Thus, the USSR supported the development of ethnic cultures, folklore groups, ethnic theaters, ethnographic museums, designed to support ethnic feelings, but in the context of a Marxist and Soviet view of history, society, culture, morality, etc.
Special mention should be made of the practice of ethnic cleansing, which Stalin resorted to since the late 1930s, on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. Doubting the loyalty of the Ingrians (Finnish ethnic group) living on the Russian-Finnish border to the Soviet government, he organized their mass eviction to the north and Tajikistan. Almost all Poles were later evicted from the border zones of Ukraine to Central Asia. In August 1937, 180 thousand Koreans from Primorye, who, according to Stalin, needed intensive Russification, were sent in trains to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
During and after the end of the Great Patriotic War, ethnic cleansing intensified even more. In the territories that were under Nazi occupation, representatives of various ethnic groups showed themselves differently from the point of view of loyalty to the Soviet regime and relations with the occupiers. In Belarus there were practically no examples of cooperation with the Nazis,

the partisan movement there was the strongest and most active, and the casualties among the Belarusian population were enormous. In Western Ukraine or the Baltic countries, on the contrary, there were enough examples of cooperation with the Germans - and often consciously and based on anti-Soviet and anti-Russian soil. Cases of collaboration were noted among the Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush, Meskhetian Turks, Kabardians, Karachais, Kalmyks, etc. Stalin’s answer was not directed against individuals, involved in these acts, but against entire ethnic groups who were subjected to forced deportation - sometimes under conditions that could be called deliberate genocide.
In this regard to ethnic groups, we see an example of the classic transfer of individual guilt to the entire ethnic group, characteristic of traditional states and empires: Genghis Khan’s warriors did the same, destroying entire ethnic groups because of the misdeeds of their individual representatives, most often leaders; The Turks of the Turkic Kaganate also massacred the Rourans. Stalin, under the auspices of “socialism,” reproduces standards traditional society(people/Laos), which allows us to determine the real content of his “national policy” - its goal was to strengthen the state, subordinate various ethnic groups to a single integral strategic goal and the state elite, which tolerates neither objections nor betrayal. At the same time, in practice, Stalin is guided by a strategy characteristic of any empire, which rigidly defends its interests and manipulates ethnic groups in the format in which it meets these interests.

A look at the question of the validity of the statement about the formation in the USSR of a “new community - the Soviet people”, the bearer of “Soviet civilization” and “Soviet culture”

During the course of socialist construction in the USSR, the socialist nations achieved great prosperity. The long-established division of the country into industrial and raw materials areas has disappeared. Large industrial centers have grown up in all republics. A national intelligentsia was created, coming from among workers and peasants.

Between Soviet republics relations of friendship and close cooperation developed in the field of economics and culture, there was an intensive process of exchange of technical and scientific experience. Representatives of all republics participated in the development of the country's natural resources and the construction of new industrial centers. Through joint efforts, work was carried out to develop the virgin lands.

The policy of the Communist Party, aimed at eliminating differences in the level of development of nations, led to an intensification of the process of their political, economic and cultural rapprochement.

This rapprochement has reached such a high degree that common features and qualities have appeared in every nation and nationality.

The most important of these features is a political system common to all nations and nationalities.

It is led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Soviet people are characterized by such moral qualities as a conscientious attitude to work, social initiative, collectivism, and internationalism. A new historical community has emerged in the Soviet Union - the Soviet people, which represents a union of all working people of the USSR, characterized by social, ideological and political unity.

The social community of Soviet nations and nationalities developed. In all republics, the same type of social structure has been created and the process of erasing the lines between classes and groups of society is underway. A single socialist culture, international in content, arose in the USSR. It has absorbed the best features and achievements of the culture of all peoples of the country. soviet history socialist

Marxism-Leninism, the worldview of the working class, became the dominant ideology of Soviet citizens. The rapprochement of nations based on the same type of economy and social structure, having a common worldview of Marxism-Leninism and one goal - the construction of communism, led to the emergence of common features in the spiritual appearance and psychology of all working people of the USSR.

Soviet people are characterized by such moral qualities as a conscientious attitude to work, social initiative, collectivism, and internationalism.

The collapse of the USSR occurred against the backdrop of an increasing desire for self-determination of nations, primarily those whose rights had been infringed by history. Soviet national policy did not always contribute to the development of culture, language, and traditions. The territorial and national integrity of peoples was violated. In the name of the general, the private was sometimes infringed upon. The premature proclamation of a new historical community - the “Soviet people” - also played a negative role.

Building communism; arose in the USSR as a result of socialist transformations and the emergence of a lasting socio-political. and ideological unity of all classes and strata, nations and nationalities. S. N. represents a multinational workers of city and countryside, united by a socialist community. building, Marxist-Leninist ideology, communist. ideals of the working class, principles of internationalism. U S. n. unified supreme bodies state authorities and state management of the USSR, the Constitution of the USSR for all owls people have union citizenship. Common language of international communication in the USSR is rus. language, which is an expression of the role played rus. people in the fraternal family of peoples of the USSR.

In the education of S. science. the most important role belongs to CPSU- parties, international in its ideology, politics, composition and structure. By uniting the most conscious people in its ranks. part of the friendships. classes and groups, nations and nationalities, CPSU expresses the vital interests of the entire social sciences, cements the community owls people in all walks of life.

Material and spiritual community owls people received a comprehensive understanding under the conditions of mature socialism. Increasing social homogeneity owls society, its socio-political. unity, the development of the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat into a common people. led to an even greater strengthening of the union and friendship of all classes and social groups, nations and nationalities of the USSR, whose representatives have more and more all-Soviet, international features. In the conditions of mature socialism and the construction of communism, the international movement intensified. economical community, the all-Union economy has reached a high level - an integral national economy. , including adv. economy of all republics and developing according to a single state plan in the interests of the entire country and each republic.

Based on economic and socio-political. socialist communities nations and nationalities, their spiritual community is growing, further rapprochement is taking place national crops Strengthening international damn in national culture and character does not mean that the national is allegedly being sacrificed to the international, but that the national itself is changing and being enriched. The greatest result revolutionary the reorganization of society was the birth of a new spiritual and psychological. appearance owls people who, while maintaining their national features mainly have internationalist features. National community is in organic unity with the higher, international. community, and representatives of any nation and nationality of the USSR consider themselves first of all owls people, which was found in the emergence of feelings of common nationality. pride owls person. S. N. as a new social and international. community became the most important factor in the further progress of developed socialism in the USSR and the prototype of future broader international. communities of people.

Marx K., Engels F., German, Op., T. 3; them, About Poland, in the same place, T. 4; Lenin V.I., To the Jewish workers, PSS, T. 10; him, The situation and tasks of the socialist. International, ibid. T. 26; his, Theses for the II Congress of Communist. International, ibid. T. 41; Materials of the XXIV Congress CPSU, M., 1971; Materials of the XXV Congress CPSU, M., 1976; Materials of the XXVI Congress CPSU, M., 1981; Roads of Friendship, M., 1972; The Soviet people are the builders of communism, T. 1-2, Frunze, 1977; Development of the Soviet people - a new historical community, M., 1980.

Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editor: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 .

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