Culture of the Kyiv principality during the period of feudal fragmentation. Culture of Kievan Rus and Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation

Features of the period

Epic creativity continued to develop

Translated literature (about 90%):

Historical stories

Historical stories

"Zadonshchina" (Safoniy Ryazanets)

"The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev"

Historical songs

"Walking" or "walking"

"Walking" or "walking"

"The Word of Daniel the Sharper"

Genre "cries"

The emergence of chronographs

Birch bark certificates

ABC

From the 12th century a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture

Masterpieces of construction art of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

Foundation of Bogolyubov

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir

Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on the Nerl near Bogolyubov

Church of the Transfiguration in Pereslavl-Zalessky

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery near Novgorod

Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Anthony Monastery in Novgorod. 1117

Church of the Transfiguration on Nereditsa near Novgorod

Church of the Transfiguration of the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov

Monuments of the architectural school of the Kyiv land

Architecture of Chernigov land

Culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation

Introduction

I chose the topic “Culture of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation”, because, despite the widespread opinion about the backwardness of Rus' from other countries at this time, about its cultural underdevelopment, I want to prove the opposite. Rus' period XI-XIII centuries. experienced a great surge of culture, she rose spiritually. By the beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Rus' was spiritually rich; by this time it had already produced many monuments of architecture, literature, and painting. At the end of the 13th century, Rus' developed very strongly. In most cities, architecture, chronicle, and icon painting were mastered and developed. I also want to show that Rus' took a lot from Byzantium (religion, chronicles, sacred church books, icon painting, the structure of churches and temples), but at the same time, she presented it in her own way, in everything that the people of Rus' created her spirit was felt, mood, feelings. The Russian people were able to bring into everything that they created a piece of themselves, so unique and dear to us. I also want to show that the culture of a people is part of its history. This is everything that was created by the mind, talent, handicraft of the people and what is still passed down from generation to generation, everything that expresses its spiritual essence. A look at the world, nature, human relations and the relationship between man and God.

Russian medieval culture of the X-XIII centuries. earned high praise from both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed out the routes to Russian cities and admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv the adornment of the East and the rival of Constantinople (Adam Beremensky). The learned presbyter, Theophilus of Paderborn, in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century, admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and niello on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one form of art or another, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece was ahead of it, and Italy, Arabia, Germany and other countries were behind it. Samples of Russian products delighted the nobles of the German emperors both when they were in Kyiv as ambassadors, and when the Kiev prince, who fled from the rebellious people, showed Russian things to the emperor.

The culture of that time helps us understand the formation of the state, the worldview of people, their minds and feelings, and, most importantly, the culture of that time is still present in our lives, and interest in it does not fade away, this is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, this cathedrals and temples built at that time, and still living, these are frescoes and icons painted by icon painters of pre-Mongol Rus', these are fairy tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, which are still relevant today with their teachings and morals, this is a religion that Most of the Russian people still adhere to this. All this has passed through the veil of time and continues to exist, surprise and live its own life even in our time.

I believe that the Russian people have made an invaluable contribution to world culture, creating works of culture that are still relevant to this day hundreds of years ago. So, in this test I want to show all the richness of the Russian soul, which formed the basis of the cultural monuments of that time.

General conditions for the development of culture

Already in the 11th century, one trend increasingly stood out in the life of the ancient Russian principalities: the intensification of princely feuds and civil strife, which hindered the formation of Rus' and jeopardized its very independence. This was facilitated by the growth of patrimonial land ownership and the development of cities. The cities became strong enough to not be subordinate to Kyiv, which could no longer provide them with effective protection if necessary; local princes, who received the support of patrimonial lords and townspeople, handled this task better. All this, along with the princes’ desire for independence, led to the isolation of the principalities from Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv itself, however, did not stop, for it remained the most prestigious table and largest city Rus'.

Fragmentation caused by socio-political reasons was, however, an inevitable stage in the history of Rus' - almost all countries of medieval Europe went through it.

Civil strife between the principalities created a rather large gap in the defense of the borders of Rus', and many princes did not hesitate to call for help in the fight against the neighboring principalities of the Polovtsians. They, in turn, dispersed greatly, and the princes soon lost all control over them, and the Russian land groaned under the onslaught of raids from the outskirts. Outlying principalities, cities and villages were burned out, robbed, many were taken prisoner, and Poland and Hungary also actively interfered in Russian affairs.

The largest lands of the era of feudal fragmentation, which played a leading role in the destinies of Rus', were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod feudal republic.

Vladimir-Suzdal land: The Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the area between the Oka and Volga rivers. The most ancient inhabitants This wooded region was inhabited by Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes. The economic growth of this Zalesskaya land had a beneficial effect on the growth that had intensified since the 11th century. colonization influx of the Slavic population, especially from the south of Rus' under the influence of the Polovtsian threat. The most important occupation of the population of this part of Rus' was agriculture, which was carried out on fertile black soil outcrops among forests (the so-called opolya). Crafts and trade connected with the Volga route played a noticeable role in the life of the region. The most ancient cities The principalities were Rostov, Suzdal and Murom, from the middle of the 12th century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.

The beginning of the establishment of independence of the Rostov-Suzdal land occurred during the reign of one of younger sons Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, who made Suzdal his capital. Carrying out an active policy in the interests of his principality, the prince sought to rely on the local boyars, city and church circles. Under Yuri Dolgoruky, a number of new cities were founded, including Moscow for the first time in 1147 in the chronicle. Owning the Rostov-Suzdal land, Yuri Dolgoruky constantly tried to seize the Kiev throne into his own hands. At the end of his life he managed to take control of Kiev, but he did not enjoy the support of the local population. Yuri died under strange circumstances in 1157 (most likely he was poisoned by the Kyiv boyars). The eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), was born and raised in the north and considered his native lands to be his main support. Having received control from Yuri Dolgoruky in the city of Vyshgorod (near Kyiv), while his father was still alive, Andrei Bogolyubsky left him and with his entourage went to Rostov. According to legend, something written by an unknown Byzantine master of the 12th century came to the Rostov-Suzdal land with him. icon of the Mother of God, which later became one of the most revered icons in Russia (“Our Lady of Vladimir”). Having established himself on the throne after the death of his father, Andrei Bogolyubsky moved his capital from Rostov to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. He spared no expense in strengthening and decorating his capital. In an effort to keep Kyiv under his control, Andrei Bogolyubsky preferred to be in Vladimir, from where he pursued an energetic policy to strengthen strong princely power. A cruel and power-hungry politician, Andrei Bogolyubsky relied on the “younger squad” (service people), the urban population, especially the new capital Vladimir, and partly on church circles. The prince's harsh and often autocratic actions caused discontent among the large landowner boyars. As a result of an agreement between the nobility and representatives of the prince’s inner circle, a conspiracy arose, and in 1174 Andrei Yuryevich was killed in his residence Bogolyubovo (near Vladimir). After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, as a result of civil strife, his younger brother, Vsevolod Yuryevich, ended up on the throne, finally securing Vladimir-on-Klyazma status of the main princely capital. The reign of Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) was the period of the highest political power of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod the Great was under the control of Vsevolod Yuryevich, and the Murom-Ryazan land was in constant dependence on the Vladimir prince. Vsevolod the Big Nest significantly influenced the state of affairs in the southern Russian lands at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. was the most powerful Russian prince. However, after the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a struggle for power broke out between his many sons, which was an expression of the development of the process of feudal fragmentation within the Vladimir-Suzdal principality itself.

Galicia-Volyn land: The territory of the Galicia-Volyn land extended from the Carpathians to Polesie, covering the flows of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, and in the foothills of the Carpathians - salt mining and mining. Trade with other countries played an important role in the life of the region. great importance in which they had the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky.

The strong local boyars played an active role in the life of the principality, in constant struggle with which the princely authorities tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land were constantly influenced by the policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups turned for help or to find refuge. The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the unrest that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Waging a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subjugate other lands of Southern Rus'. After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volyn between themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before Batu’s invasion, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich.

Novgorod land: from the very beginning of the history of Rus', it played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional farming practice of the Slavs, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not provide much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was profit from the sale of trade products - beekeeping, hunting fur and sea animals. Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held access to the Baltic Sea in their hands from the beginning of the 13th century. The Novgorod border in the West ran along the line of Lakes Peipus and Pskov. The annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals was important for Novgorod. Novgorod maritime and forestry industries brought enormous wealth. Trade ties of Novgorod with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, strengthened from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Items imported into Rus' were cloth, weapons, metals, etc. The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political isolation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. For the princes In Novgorod, only official functions remained. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of lands in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the properties determined for their service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the 12th century. Grand Duke Vladimir was formally considered the Prince of Novgorod, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod. The highest governing body of Novgorod was the veche; real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three to four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic, and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of the power over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages out of their control.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, these movements, as a rule, did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

Thus, we see that Kievan Rus finally disintegrated, other large Russian principalities and cities appeared, because of which there was no peace in Rus', civil strife, raids from the outskirts, all this disturbed the hearts and minds of the people. This was not the most peaceful time, even though it was historically predictable. But at the same time, due to the fact that Rus' was divided into many principalities, art began to develop in each feudal state, which, in general, ultimately gave such a surge of culture in all regions of Rus'.

Literary monuments

Russian medieval culture

The most important monument in Rus' is the chronicle - this is a historical genre of ancient Russian literature, which is a yearly, more or less detailed record historical events. Chroniclers, as a rule, were literate, literary gifted monks who knew translated literature, legends, epics, and described events and facts related mainly to the life of princes, the affairs of monasteries and occasionally ordinary affairs.

The chronicler's geographical horizons are very broad - he knows Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic remnants of the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live at the ends of the earth . Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state.

The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the emergence of regional literary forces; each new princely center kept its own chronicles, paying the main attention to local events, but never ceasing to be interested in all-Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities.

It is important to note that while Ancient Rus' became closer to Byzantium, it began big job on translation and rewriting of books. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Church Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, but at the same time they continued to use their own language, which distinguished it from most countries of the East and West. The Russian language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature.

The unity of the national and state languages ​​was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and German countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such widespread literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant knowing Latin. For Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; This explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and boards (obviously waxed). For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it even a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsians is considered only as the defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of different nationalities: Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on others..., even if you are a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all filth - have mercy on everyone and deliver them from harm (Message of Theodosius of Pechersk to Prince Izyaslav, 11th century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of South Slavic countries that did not know Latin as an official language. Russian literature of the 11th-13th centuries, sadly enough, has not reached us completely. The medieval church, aggressively disposed towards the remnants of paganism in the state, zealously destroyed everything associated with it, literature was not spared, so many works that mentioned pagan gods were destroyed. An example is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” where the church is mentioned in passing, and the entire poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Until the 18th century Only one list of “The Lay...” has reached us, although it is known that it was read in different Russian cities, individual quotations in surviving manuscripts, hints at the abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that in the fire of internecine wars, persecution of the Orthodox Church , Polovtsian and Tatar raids could have destroyed many treasures of ancient Russian literature. But the surviving part is also very valuable and interesting.

The largest works of Russian literature created during that period, but continuing their literary life many more centuries, are: “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Mikhail Zatochnik, “Kiev-Pechersk Patericon” and, of course, occupies a prominent place among them "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor. Most of them are characterized by a broad, all-Russian view of events and phenomena, pride in their state, awareness of the need for constant joint struggle against nomadic troops, and the desire to stop the ruinous wars of Russian princes among themselves.

The pearl of Russian literature of the pre-Mongol era is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (~1187), which stands in the first rank of masterpieces of world poetry. “The Word...” is one of the greatest monuments of ancient Russian literature. About eight centuries ago, around 1187, one of the most brilliant works ancient Russian literature. “The Word...” is a centuries-old oak, a mighty and spreading oak. Its branches connect with the crowns of other luxurious trees in the great garden of Russian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries, and its roots go deep into Russian soil.

Since ancient times, Russian literature has been distinguished by high patriotism, interest in topics of social and state construction, and an ever-growing connection with folk art. She placed man at the center of her quest, she serves him, sympathizes with him, portrays him, reflects him in him. national traits, looking for ideals in him. In Russian literature of the XI-XVI centuries. there was no poetry or lyricism as separate genres, and therefore all literature is imbued with a special lyricism. This lyricism penetrates chronicles, historical stories, and oratory. It is characteristic that lyricism in ancient Russian literature has predominantly civil forms. The author grieves and yearns not for his personal misfortunes, he thinks about his homeland, and primarily turns the fullness of his personal feelings to it. This is not a personal lyric, although the author’s personality is expressed in it by calls to save the homeland, to overcome troubles in public life country, a sharp expression of grief over the defeats or civil strife of the princes.

This typical feature found one of the most vivid expressions in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” “The Word...” is dedicated to the theme of defending the homeland, it is lyrical, full of melancholy and sorrow, angry indignation and passionate appeal. It is epic and lyrical at the same time. The author constantly interferes in the course of events he talks about. He interrupts himself with exclamations of melancholy and grief, as if he wants to stop the alarming course of events, compares the past with the present, calls on contemporary princes to take active action against the enemies of the homeland.

“The Word...” is imbued with great human feeling - warm, gentle, strong feeling love for the homeland. This love is felt in every line of the work: and in emotional excitement, with whom the author speaks about the defeat of Igor’s troops:

“On the third day, by noon, Igor’s banners fell!

Here the brothers separated on the banks of the fast Kayala;

there was not enough bloody wine here;

here the brave Russians finished the feast:

got the matchmakers drunk,

and they themselves died for the Russian land.

The grass will fade with pity,

and the tree bowed to the ground with sadness.”

And in the way he conveys the words of Russian wives crying for the killed soldiers:

“The Russian wives burst into tears, saying:

"We already have our dear ones

not in my thoughts to think,

I don't even think about it,

I can’t see it with my eyes,

But you can’t hold gold and silver and worse in your hands!”

both in the broad picture of Russian nature and in the joys of Igor’s return:

“The sun is shining in the sky,”

and Igor is a prince in the Russian land.

Igor travels along Borichev

to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshchaya.

The villages are happy, the towns are cheerful.

Singing a song to the old princes,

then the young ones will sing:

"Glory to Igor Svyatoslavich,

Buoy to Vsevolod,

Vladimir Igorevich!

The poem was inspired by real events in the history of that time. “The Word…” was created after the events of Igor’s campaign and was written under fresh impressions of these events. This work is collected from hints, reminders, silent indications of what was still in the memory of each person. It served as a call for an end to the princely strife, for unification in the face of a terrible external danger. The merit of the author is that he managed to rise above the private interests of individual princes, understood the need to unite the Russian land and expressed this idea in bright and lively images and paintings. “The Word...” with brilliant power and inspiration reflected the disaster of that time - the lack of political unity of Rus', the enmity of the princes among themselves and, as a consequence, the weakness of its defense from the intensified and more frequent pressure of raids by nomadic peoples and the eastern neighbors of Rus'.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” not only tells about the events of Igor Svyatoslavich’s campaign - it gives an assessment and represents a passionate and excited speech of a patriot, either turning to the events of living modernity, or remembering the deeds of hoary antiquity. This speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the homeland, full of pride in it, confidence in its future.

“The Word...” remains a relevant work of literature today. Despite the fact that this happened about 825 years ago, it remains a great monument of Russian culture and interest in it and interest in it does not fade, but on the contrary is increasing. It shows all the love of a Russian person for his homeland, his people and his excitement for the future of his country.

The literature of that time does not fade away despite the passing centuries. Thanks to her, we learn a lot of what happened at that time; the teachings of the authors of those times are still vital today. In the example of chronicles, “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and other works of that period, we can see that the Russian people were spiritually high, educated and exalted. He was interested in what was happening in the state and beyond; moreover, he knew how to correctly assess what was happening, without hiding from the reader the dark sides of that time. They were really educated people, who contributed a piece of themselves to the literature of pre-Mongol Rus'. A piece of Russian heritage, feelings, mood.

Folklore

The folklore of Ancient Rus' remains important and vital in our time. Despite the fact that proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, epics and songs began to be written down only in the 17th century, they appeared precisely during the period of pre-Mongol Rus'. All of them are filled with meaning, teaching and ridiculing the bad qualities of people. They show us the unity of man with nature, God, and his spiritual strength.

From the 10th century there was the biggest surge in the appearance of epics. Favorite epic heroes were Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Mikula Silyanovich, Volga.

Russian epic XI - XII centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. By the middle of the XII - XIII centuries. This includes the appearance of Novgorod epics about the “guest” Sadko, a wealthy merchant descended from an ancient noble family, as well as a cycle of tales about Prince Roman, the prototype of which is Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky. The sayings of that time ridiculed lies, cowardice, and human weakness; they praised work, kindness, complicity, and again, unity. They taught people to be strong in spirit and body, to honor their elders, and to love their homeland. A lot of sayings that appeared in ancient Rus' have survived to this day. People continue to use them, because the meaning of sayings and proverbs remains the same. Fairy tales that appeared during that period have also partially survived to our times, they were transferred from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation. Most fairy tales and legends have pagan roots. Pagan gods and the gods, persecuted by the Orthodox Church, found their refuge and refuge in fairy tales and still live there. In fairy tales we see foresters, goblins, watermen, mermaids, brownies and other deities of pagan culture. This is the forest man in “The Frog Princess”, the merman (the sea king in folk tales and epics), and fetishism also finds its trend in them (the tablecloth is self-assembled, the boots are walkers, the magic ball).

In fairy tales, we can also observe the people’s idea of ​​the afterlife, the eternal world of their ancestors, and its relationship with the world of the living on earth. We can observe in fairy tales a vision of death, the afterlife, the soul as a transition to another form of existence. They found a predominantly reflection of this belief in fairy tales, especially associated with the image of Baba Yaga, who carried out the transition to another world. Fairy tales allow us to understand the pagans’ understanding of the accomplices of death, the paths leading to the other world, the line between the earthly and the “eternal world,” ways to overcome it and helpers on the long and difficult path to the “other world.” But let’s not forget that the fairy tales also raised the topic of honesty, courage, truth; they cursed evil, lies, laziness, and betrayal. The main villains were always punished according to the severity of their guilt. Thus, folklore shows us the ideas of the people of that time, its moral qualities, rationality and faith in the good good feelings of that generation.

Architecture and painting

Russian medieval architecture makes a serious contribution to the history of world culture. Having already had experience in building fortresses, towers, palaces, and wooden pagan temples, Russian architects with amazing speed mastered the new Byzantine technique of brick construction and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. In a number of cases, architecture very sensitively reflected the political history of the country: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv was reflected in the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov 1036, Kyiv 1037). Novgorod uprising of 1136 Suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for boyars. Previously, the isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kiev led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the 12th - 13th centuries. represents a certain unity. It cannot be said that Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had extensive connections with the East, West and Byzantium. Having learned at the turn of the X - XI centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own all-Russian style, varying by region.

Appearance in the 12th century. tower-shaped, upward, slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of Russian national style, born as a result of the impact of wooden construction. The unstable borders of feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking example of such a common style, indicating that art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white stone architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings.

Researchers rightfully compare the white-stone churches of Vladimir with their lavish carved ornamentation in terms of their overall harmony and richness of plots with “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” where the folk, pagan also overshadows the Christian.

A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th - 12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in the proportionality of their parts. Recent discoveries in old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles have made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to the basis of Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through the mediation of Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture has retained its artistic influence for a long time.

The same can be said about the painting of ancient Rus'. Russian painting and drawing have reached us in the form of frescoes, icons, and book miniatures. High level artistic expression achieved by ancient Russian painting is partly explained by the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period.

Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions of flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times, when people worshiped the elements of nature and everything that this nature gives rise to: animals, birds, fish, trees, grass, stones. The bulk of works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belong to only one category - church art. Secular art is known to us only partially.

Each church building was not only a beautiful architectural structure, but also an entire gallery of fresco painting, subordinated to a single complex design. There were sacred images in several tiers, which were supposed to inspire the Slav with superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the god of heaven and the princes of the earth. From church frescoes I looked at the ordinary people below at images of Christian saints in the robes of bishops, kings, warriors, and monks.

The class essence of the feudal church was revealed in its entirety in relation to art, which the church tried to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power. Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to affirm the ideas of the feudal church. A Kievite or a Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in special world images, separated from the noisy city trade. The huge head of Jesus Christ seemed to float in the sky, above the space of the dome filled with incense smoke. The stern “fathers of the church” appeared in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Mother of God reminded the Slav of the ancient pagan goddess of earth and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Makosh) and thereby united in his consciousness the old and new cults. When, frightened and depressed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, his last impression was the picture of the “Last Judgment” painted above the exit. He was returning from church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dared disobey church laws.

The development of class struggle and anti-church movements, “heresies,” led to the spread of certain subjects in art, for example, “The Miracle of the Archangel Michael in Khony,” where Michael, “the commander of the heavenly forces,” punishes peasants who tried to raise an uprising. The plot of “The Assurance of Thomas” is directed against skeptics who doubted Christian legends.

Thus, we can conclude that, despite the fact that a lot in architecture and painting appeared with the arrival of Christianity from Byzantium to Rus', they did not adopt much from it. All manifestations of art have their own, incomparable, Russian soul of man. Yes, it has changed a little, thanks to new trends in culture and religion in Rus', its own touch of art, which originated and flourished back in pagan Rus', still continued to be present in everything. Also, despite the feudal fragmentation of the state and civil strife between the princes, there is still a cultural and linguistic community of all principalities. One can even say that the feudal split of the state had a positive impact on the development of architecture and painting in different principalities, and not in just one. This once again shows how powerful and united in spiritually the state of ancient Rus' remained.

Religion

It is known that baptism in Rus' took place in 988, but at the same time the Russian land experienced baptism for a long time.

The people did not want to part with their long-term way of life, even after joining the Christian faith.

In 990, Rostov was baptized, but the residents of Rostov, who first accepted baptism, then kicked out three bishops one after another. Only the fourth bishop, with the help of military force, was able to destroy the pagan sanctuary in Rostov and force people to accept Christianity. In 992 Polotsk was baptized, a few years later Turov. The Smolensk land accepted Christianity for quite a long time, and the bishopric in Smolensk was approved only in 1137. No information has been preserved about the conversion of the population of the Ryazan and Murom regions to the new faith. Apparently Christianization of these areas began no earlier than the 12th century.

The Eastern Slavs reacted very painfully to the demand to abandon the faith of their ancestors. Staunch adherents of paganism fled the cities. In 1024, an uprising led by pagan priests began in Suzdal. Prince Yaroslav brutally suppressed the movement of the priests. However, less than half a century later, in 1071, the priests again raised unrest in the Rostov land and Novgorod, but it was again extinguished.

Nevertheless, even if the princes could forcibly baptize, it was impossible to force anyone to believe. The result of the religious reform of Prince Vladimir was dual faith, which dominated Rus' from the 10th to 11th centuries. Christianity slowly mixed with pagan beliefs, creating a completely new type of worldview in which the dogmas and values ​​of the old and new religion. The rural population, for the most part, remained faithful to paganism, with which all folk culture. Moreover, in the cities Christianity took hold only externally. This is true both for ordinary townspeople and for the princely-boyar environment. The church also had to come to terms with this reality, forced to make concessions in order to instill in people at least the main thing in the teachings. The church itself tried to become closer to the people and sometimes indulged in tricks. It is known, for example, that in Novgorod the Church of St. Vasily stood on Volosovaya Street, and the saint in it is depicted on the icon surrounded by cattle, that is, very often churches were rebuilt on the site of former pagan sanctuaries. The church also tried to make the temple of God closer and more understandable to people by what reminded them of pagan worship: this is the worship of icons and statues (as an example of pagan idols of gods), as well as the division between the pantheon of canonized saints, each of them was assigned a certain power and they were patrons of one specific direction (for example, the division of powers between the gods in paganism), and even the fact that a candle was placed for the desired saint was reminiscent of the ritual when a fire was lit in front of the desired idol. This also applies to burials, back in the 13th century. decorations and weapons were placed in princely burials at temples, as required by pagan rites.

But despite all the prairies, the church, with the advent of Christianity in Rus', did a lot, it opened a qualitative new page in history and culture.

The new religion has raised new level literature, architecture, thanks to it icon painting appeared. But, as in other branches of culture, we see that Rus' not only accepted a new faith, rising one step higher, but, as always, it brought its origins into the church, making it different from other religions.

Conclusions

Since the 10th century. Rus' reached great heights in culture. For the most part, this was benefited by the emergence of Christianity as a new faith and a new round in the history of Rus'. Great hopes were placed on her, and as it turned out, not in vain. It helped maintain linguistic and cultural unity in the state, which at that time had split into many small fragments - feudal principalities, but, most importantly, people did not adopt everything from other countries, completely copying already established pictures, no, they brought it into culture, into literature, architecture, painting, religion - a piece of themselves, they rebuilt everything that Byzantium had handed over to them, to their own liking, leaving behind the pagan culture that was not small at that time and adapting it to the newly arrived one. Later in the 18th-19th centuries. the culture will become even more secular and lose its Christian and pagan influences, but now, which is very nice, people are starting to return to their roots.

Rus' XI-XIII centuries. was very high spiritually and morally. She was able, no matter what, to convey to our times everything that they thought, what bothered them, what they dreamed about and how they lived.

Now we cannot imagine life without the “Word...”, without cathedrals, temples, without that oral literature that appeared at that time, but continues to educate us from childhood, to instruct us. This is a religion that has hardly changed since the merger of paganism and Christianity. This is folklore that has been with us since childhood, epics about mighty heroes, personifying all the mighty men of pre-Mongol Rus'.

All this is present in our lives from a young age with the first bedtime story, with the first candle placed at the icon in the temple, with the first stories about brownies, mermaids, goblins, with the first acquaintance already at school with the “Word ...”, “Tale temporary years." And when you begin to think about how many centuries actually passed before you read, heard and saw, you become truly joyful for your people, for your past.

This shows in every way how erroneous the widespread opinion is that Rus', during the period of feudal fragmentation, was culturally complete.

I believe that she truly made an invaluable contribution to world culture in general and to the culture of today's Russia in particular.

It was truly a culturally rich state, despite all the strife and unrest that was taking place in it at that moment.

Bibliography

1.B.A. Rybakov “Culture of Ancient Rus'” Moscow 1956.

.D.S. Likhachev “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the culture of his time” Leningrad 1985.

.“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” Moscow: Enlightenment, 1984

.B.A. Rybakov “Ancient Rus': Legends. Epics. Chronicles" Moscow 1963

Culture of Rus' during the period of political fragmentation

The period of feudal fragmentation is a time of widespread stone construction in all principalities. In the capital cities wonderful architectural structures, and their number was more than ten. The architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation has its own distinctive features. Buildings of the XII - XIII centuries. differed from the buildings of the previous period in the smaller scale of the buildings, simple but beautiful forms, and simplicity of decoration. A typical structure was a cubic temple with a massive light drum and a helmet-shaped dome. From the second half of the 12th century. Byzantine influence in architecture was weakening, which was reflected in the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of tower-shaped temples, unknown to Byzantine architecture. At this time, Rus' joined the pan-European Romanesque style. This inclusion did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple, but affected the external design of the buildings: arcature belts, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls.
Elements of Romanesque architecture spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. Architectural buildings of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved and many of them are known only from literary descriptions and archaeological data. In the middle of the 14th century. Galician-Volyn lands became part of the Catholic states - Poland and Hungary. For many centuries, the Catholic Church destroyed all traces of Russian culture, so it is especially difficult to restore the original appearance of the churches of Western Rus'. The peculiarity of the architecture of this land was the combination of the Byzantine-Kievan composition with Romanesque construction techniques and elements of Romanesque decorative decoration. The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, as well as block bricks instead of Kyiv plinth, from which they built churches of a wide variety of plans: four- and six-pillars, pillarless, and round in plan - rotundas. Round churches - rotundas - evidence of the influence of Western early Gothic architecture. The high level of Galician architecture of this period is evidenced by Church of Panteleimon near Galich(early 13th century) with its perspective portal and carved capitals.

The general democratization of Novgorod life during the period of feudal fragmentation also affected Novgorod architecture. In 1136, Novgorod became a veche republic, and the princes became hired leaders of the squad guarding the city and its possessions. The prince was evicted outside the city - to Gorodishche, 3 km from Novgorod. There the princes settled and built monasteries - fortresses with temples. The most remarkable of the princely temples is St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119), built by order of Vsevolod Mstislavich. The temple has three asymmetrically located chapters, shifted to the west, which is uncharacteristic for Orthodox churches. The building was built using the mixed masonry technique, combining stone blocks and bricks. The cathedral is virtually devoid of decoration, since Novgorod limestone is friable, oversaturated with shells and difficult to process. History has not brought to us the names of the architects of that period, but the name of the architect of St. George's Cathedral has been preserved in the Novgorod chronicles - “Master Peter”. Construction of the cathedral lasted 11 years; before completion, its walls were covered with frescoes that were destroyed in the 19th century. On July 12, 1130, it was consecrated in the name of St. George the Victorious. In contrast to the interior decoration, the original appearance of the cathedral has been almost completely preserved (during the restorations of 1931-1935, all its numerous extensions, built at different times, were removed).

First stone Church of Paraskeva Friday on Torg (St. Paraskeva-Friday was considered the patroness of trade) was built in 1207 on the site of a wooden one, erected in 1156 by overseas merchants. The documents preserve 15 news about the fires that befell the temple and renovations. Modern look The temple was acquired as a result of post-war restoration, during which many ancient forms were revealed.

A striking example of the monuments of Novgorod architecture of the last third of the 12th century. It is rightfully considered Church of the Transfiguration on Nereditsa. Erected in one season around 1198 under the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich in memory of his two dead sons. Despite its relatively small size, it gives the impression of a monumental structure. The volume of the church, crowned by a single dome resting on four pillars, is divided into 3 naves and completed on the east by three altar apses. Characteristic feature its compositions consist of sharply lowered side apses. The appearance of the church is restrained and strict in the Novgorod style: not a single detail disturbs the harmony of the whole. ITS only decoration - an arcature belt under the dome of a massive drum, cut through by eight narrow windows - enhances the impression of simplicity and grandeur.
World fame Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Nereditsa brought frescoes executed freely and energetically in an unusually light color: combinations of yellow-red ocher, soft green and blue colors. Unfortunately, during the Great Patriotic War, the church on Nereditsa was destroyed as a result of shelling, and its ancient frescoes were almost completely destroyed. Restored in 1956-1958. Only fragments of the painting of the altar and the lower sections of other walls have been preserved in the building.

With construction Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the first quarter of the 13th century. On the site of a pagan sanctuary in Peryn (named after the god Perun), a new type of church was created, which became decisive for Novgorod architecture in the 14th – 15th centuries. The highest achievements of Novgorod architects include Church of the Transfiguration on Kovalevo (1345), Fedora Stratelates on the Stream(1360-1361), Savior of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street(1374), Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki (1406), Simeon the God-Receiver in the Animal Monastery(1467).
The facades of all Novgorod churches usually have a three-lobed finish, and the roofs, as a rule, are eight-sloped. This deviation in the roof structure from the general Byzantine style was determined by local climatic conditions - frequent cold rains and snowfalls. Novgorod churches were built entirely of brick or multi-colored cobblestones with inserts of flat brick - plinths, which provided color shifts from grayish-blue to bright red-brown and gave the building an extraordinary picturesqueness.
The temples were decorated very modestly: with brick crosses inserted into the masonry; three small slits where there should have been one large window; “edges” above the windows and a typical Pskov-Novgorod pattern on the drum. This pattern consisted of squares and triangles. Above the ornamental belt, and sometimes instead of it, there was a chain of kokoshniks - arched stepped recesses. The altar apse was decorated with vertical ridges connected at the top by arches. Particular mention should be made of the so-called voice boxes, characteristic only of Novgorod churches: pots and jugs mounted horizontally into the walls, into the drum of the dome, into the “sails” and vaults and served as a kind of microphones.

During the period of fragmentation, from the middle of the 12th century, the largest center of Rus' became Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Outlying region Kievan Rus, lying between the Oka and Volga rivers, begins its rapid development. Large-scale construction of new cities began during the reign of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), son of Yuri Dolgoruky. In addition to the ancient cities - Rostov, Suzdal and Yaroslavl - new ones are being put forward: Pereslavl-Zalessky, Kideksha, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Moscow and especially Vladimir. Outstanding art monuments are created here, many of which have survived to this day.
Temples were built mainly from hewn white stone. It was at this time that the creation of an all-Russian type of temple with a complex dynamic composition dates back to. The four-pillar temples were crowned with one dome, rising on a high drum with apses protruding from the eastern side. The architecture of this period was distinguished by simplicity of decoration, strict proportions, and symmetry.

Assumption Cathedral, erected in 1158-1160, was scheduled for the following year. The first stone in the foundation of the temple was laid by Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1158. On September 21, 1164, the miraculous icon was transferred from Bogolyubov to the newly built cathedral church Mother of God, after which Prince Andrei proclaimed Vladimir the throne city. Before the rise of Moscow, it was the main (cathedral) church of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', where the Vladimir and Moscow princes were married for their great reign. The building of the Assumption Cathedral was erected from limestone and decorated with white stone carvings. The central head of the temple, crowned with a gilded helmet, rose 33 meters high, surpassing the height of the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv. The splendor of the Assumption Cathedral was beyond all estimates. The craftsmen bound the ceremonial entrance portals, arranged on three sides, with sheets of gilded copper. The facades were decorated with complex pilasters with Corinthian capitals, and horizontally divided into two tiers with an arched frieze. The walls and vaults of the temple were painted with frescoes. From the original frescoes, only fragments of ornamental painting have been preserved, in which the high professionalism of the artists who performed it can be discerned.

Simultaneously with the temple, construction began on the residence of the Vladimir princes in Bogolyubovo, not far from which, on the banks of the Nerl River, among flood meadows, in 1165 a white stone Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary. The location of the temple is unique: the Church of the Intercession was built in a lowland, on a small hill located on a water meadow. Previously, near the church there was a place where the Nerl flows into the Klyazma (now the river beds have changed their position). The church was located practically on the river “spit”, forming the crossroads of the most important water trade routes. An elegant four-pillar temple with the division of the outer walls into 3 unequal spindles (part of the surface of the outer wall of the building, limited on both sides by pilasters or blades) was crowned by a chapter placed on a tetrahedral pedestal. The clear rhythm of the arcature-columnar belt on the surface of the drum, the main volume and galleries, carved images make up the main thing decorative decoration temple. The sophistication of the proportions and overall harmony of the temple is noted by many researchers; The Church of the Intercession is often called the most beautiful Russian church.
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. Equally famous architectural masterpieces were erected on the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, such as: Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir(1190s), Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal (1222-1225), St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky(1230-1234).
The most important role in artistic design Vladimir churches stone carving played. In an effort to express their own attitude to the world, to the beauties of nature, stone carvers showed true skill. Among the numerous churches of Vladimir, Demetrius Cathedral stands out with its elegance and abundance of decorations. Thin carved lace, completely covering the surfaces of the walls from the arched-columnar belt right up to the dome itself, is the main feature of the cathedral, giving it special lightness and grace. The figures of Christ, prophets and apostles, Christian martyrs and holy warriors are combined with images of animals, lion masks and flowering trees. The walls between the windows are decorated with intertwined medallions with images of “mountain” birds.
The reliefs were not repeated anywhere and were arranged from top to bottom. The upper images were larger than the lower ones, which contributed to their better viewing from the ground. Overall sculptural decoration Dmitrievsky Cathedral- this is one of the highest achievements of Vladimir carvers, constituting the glory and special pride of ancient Russian art.

The collapse of Kievan Rus had extremely important positive consequences. It was easier in small areas manage . Now each ruler took care of the principality as his own property and sought to strengthen and enrich it. It rises to a new quality level economy (craft, agricultural production). The absence of internal boundaries promotes development trade , commodity-money relations .
Rus' was called before "country of cities". Now there are more of them, they are increasing in size, and their socio-political significance is growing.
Cities played a huge role in Rus'. First of all, the city is the seat of power: the prince or his governor was located here. Boyars and other noble people lived in cities, and their estates were located here. The military significance of cities was also great: there was a military garrison in well-fortified fortresses, and city residents formed their own militias - city regiments. The city was the religious center of the surrounding lands; a metropolitan was appointed here, to whom archpriests and parish priests were subordinate. Monasteries arose in or near cities. The city was also a cultural center.

Old Russian cities most often grew on hills, at the confluence of rivers or a river and a ravine. The rivers at that time were the main trade routes, and their steep banks were the natural defense of the city. First, a fortress arose on a hill (it could also be called “detinets” or "krom", "kremlin"), the settlement was surrounded by a fortified wall to protect against enemies, initially wooden, and later made of stone. Inside the fortifications there was a princely palace, temples, administrative institutions, orders, courtyards, trading houses, and residents' houses.
Let us take as an example the city of Pskov, where a detinets called Krom was located on a rocky cape at the confluence of the Pskova River and the Velikaya River and was a formidable fortress, cut off from the settlement by a ditch. In Pskov it was the veche center - the heart and guardian of all the city “ends” (quarters) and the entire Pskov land. The harsh inaccessibility of the city core was addressed to enemies. For the owners, Krom was a reliable refuge, the keeper of their shrines, property and lives themselves. Something similar can be seen in other ancient Russian cities, where, during enemy raids, residents of towns and suburban villages secluded themselves in detinets, and often burned their town courtyards with their own hands.

Pskov Kremlin

If in the IX-X centuries. the territory of Russian cities was mainly contained within the confines of small fortresses - Detinets. (The inner castle - Detynets - got its name from the “children’s” warriors who made up its garrison.) Then by the 12th-13th centuries. The cities grew significantly and soon ceased to fit within the narrow boundaries of the Detinets. Near Detinets, settlements of artisans and merchants grew up, settling outside the castle walls, and two urban worlds were created: princely and free (trade and craft). The most striking example of such a neighborhood of two different worlds is given by Kyiv. In the chronicles, two parts of Kyiv clearly appear - Gora and Podol. The posads were subsequently annexed to the city, and they were surrounded by a new wall. It formed the outer reinforced belt. In large centers, urban suburbs were gradually included within the city limits, surrounded by light fortifications in the form of a palisade placed on a low rampart. Such a fortification was called a “fortress.”

At the intersections of streets with defensive structures, towers with passage gates were built. Their number depended on the size of the settlement. In Kyiv there were at least 4 gates, in Vladimir-on-Klyazma - 4, in small fortresses they were content with only one gate. The significance of the gates for the city is emphasized by the fact that the term “open the gates” meant the surrender of the city. In large princely cities, there is a noticeable desire to highlight special front gates. In Kyiv they received the name Golden, in imitation of the Golden Gate in Constantinople. In medieval Rus', churches were always built above the gates, or icons were installed in icon cases. Churches and chapels were often placed next to the gates for their spiritual protection.

Monasteries were of exceptionally great importance for the city, located both far from cities and in their centers, and among suburbs, and on the near and distant approaches to cities, where they sometimes became “watchmen” - advanced outposts, in the language of another era. The walls of monasteries could acquire a fortress character. But monasteries also had another meaning in the life of cities: it was in the monasteries that the cultural life of cities took place, chronicles and books were written here, and beautiful works of art were created.
In the center of the ancient Russian city there was a temple and a princely palace - symbols of two powers, spiritual and secular. In pre-Christian times, the religious center of the city was a pagan temple; with the advent of Christianity in Rus', Orthodox churches began to be built in cities. The largest cathedrals of pre-Mongol Rus' were erected in Kyiv. The second largest princely and episcopal cathedrals appeared in Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, and somewhat later - in Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich. Cities of lesser importance, which were given into the possession of younger princes (or where princely governors were sent), received correspondingly more modest churches. For example, the Pereyaslavl-Zalessky Cathedral received such a magnitude that in the grand ducal capitals they gave only to minor townsman and palace churches.

The symbol of secular power was the princely palace - the “prince's court”, which was the center of the political and administrative life of the city. Thieves caught at the scene of a crime overnight were brought here for reprisals, disputes between townspeople were settled here by the prince and his tiun (ruler), the city militia gathered here before setting out on a campaign - in a word, the “prince’s court” or the mayor’s court that replaced it in small towns was the place around which city life centered. Of all the buildings, the princely mansion or mansion stood out. Constructions for the housing of boyars and other noble people competed with the prince's dwelling. Separate parts of rich houses rose high above the poor dwellings of artisans and other townspeople. An outstanding part of the boyar or princely mansion was the tower - a high tower or tower, with rooms for women. In Rus', the word “vezha” was also known, which denoted not only city towers, but also towers at houses. Princely or boyar courtyards, fenced with high tyn, housed not only the master's mansions, but also utility rooms: medushas for storing honey, cellars, baths, even dungeons - cuttings.

And yet, the main population of ancient Russian cities were artisans and people associated with various crafts and day labor. They did not live in chambers and mansions, but in simple houses - huts. Each hut, or cage, whether it was spacious or cramped, aboveground or semi-underground, was located in a special courtyard. A fence (“tyn”) made of stakes, or wattle fence, separated one courtyard from another. Courtyards fenced with wattle fence and tyn formed the landscape of a typical city street of Ancient Rus'. To designate urban areas in Ancient Rus', the words “street” and “end” were used. In a number of cities (for example, Moscow) it can be observed that the direction of the streets was closely related to the direction of the original roads that converged on the fortified city.

The Mongol-Tatar invasions suddenly interrupted the brilliant flowering of art, which is captured in the architecture, painting, and sculpture of the Kyiv state and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Although the northern Russian lands defended their independence in the fight against enemies, even here, during the period of increasing threat of raids, artistic life froze. The Mongol-Tatar yoke caused enormous damage to the culture of the Russian people, many crafts disappeared, construction stopped for a long time, great amount material assets were taken to the Horde. Thousands of handwritten books, hundreds of thousands of icons, works of art perished in fires. applied arts, many architectural monuments have been lost.

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Culture experienced further growth. Local centers of culture arose (Vladimir, Novgorod, etc.).

Craft. Blacksmithing and processing of silver and gold are being improved. From the 12th century water mills are used.

Chronicle. All-Russian chronicles were replaced by local ones. The number of chronicle writing centers has increased (Vladimir, Suzdal, Galich, etc.), and its local features are developing. The Novgorod chronicles were characterized by efficiency and simplicity in the presentation of events, and the absence of church rhetoric. The Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle was of a religious nature, affirming the idea of ​​strong princely power and the claim of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes to supremacy.

Literature. The pearl of literature of the 12th century. is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", telling about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich(1151–1202) to the Polovtsian Khan Konchak V 1185 d. An unknown author calls on the princes to stop strife and unite in the fight against the nomads: “Brother said to brother: “This is mine, and that is mine.” And the filthy from all sides came with victories to the Russian land." Some scientists consider this monument to be a fake of the 18th century. (A. A. Zimin). D.S. Likhachev proved its authenticity.

The works of the bishop from Turov are known Kirill Turovsky(1130–1182) and metropolitan from Smolensk KleeMenta SmallIticha († 1164). "Kievo-Pechersk PaterAndTo"contains teachings and lives of the saints of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. "The Word of Daniel the Sharper" And "The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner" they criticize the willfulness of the boyars, advocate for the strengthening of princely power and the state in the face of foreign danger.

Architecture. A typical building of the 12th century. was a cubic temple of the cross-domed style with light drum and a helmet-shaped head (temple-“hero”).

Novgorod architecture is characterized by monumental severity and simplicity of form. The churches of Novgorod are outwardly modest, but they are in perfect harmony with the harsh northern nature: churches Savior on Nereditsa, Peter and Paul on Sinichaya Mountain, Paraskev Pyatnitsa. In the beginning. XII century master's artel Petra erected cathedrals in Antonievsky And Yuryevsky monasteries, church Nikola on Yaroslav's yard.

Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, in contrast to the harsh architecture of Novgorod, stood out for the grace and sophistication of carvings on white stone - limestone blocks measuring 50 by 50 cm. The influence of European Romanesque style expressed in arcature-columnar belts And drankI fear. Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, fortress walls and towers were built in Vladimir (the ramparts and Golden Gate), in 1158–1161. built Assumption Cathedral, in 1165 - church Intercession on the Nerl, and a castle was erected in Bogolyubovo - the residence of the prince. (There is an assumption that the builders were Europeans - Germans or Italians). In 1194–1197 Vsevolod built the Big Nest in Vladimir Dmitrovsky Cathedral, distinguished by the richness of stone carvings, as well as St. George's Cathedral in the city of Yuryev-Polsky.

Painting . Icon " Our Lady of Vladimir"("Our Lady of Bogolyubskaya"), a wonderful work of Byzantine art of the early. XII century, distinguished by softness and depth of feelings. A well-known mosaic icon from the 12th century. " Dmitry Solynsky"from St. Michael's Cathedral in Kyiv (now in the Tretyakov Gallery). Novgorod painters of the 12th century. created icons " Angel Golden Hair», « Savior Not Made by Hands", frescoes of the church Spasa on Nereditsa.

sculpture in Rus' it was poorly developed; it was prohibited in churches due to the fight against pagan idols. Wood carving was a characteristic feature of dwellings and wooden temples.

Life - way of life Everyday life people (food, clothing, housing, health maintenance, recreation, entertainment). Everyday life develops and changes under the influence of the level of culture, geographical conditions and influences the formation of personality and mentality.

Marriage customs . In Rus', as in Western Europe, early marriages were practiced. According to church norms, adults were considered people who had reached 12–14 years of age. Vsevolod the Big Nest married his son Konstantin at the age of 10, and his daughter Verkhuslava at the age of 8.

Housing . Princely mansions were built of wood, and later of stone. Glass in windows before the 16th century. replaced by mica. Daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna Yaroslavna, who married King Henry I of France, was surprised by the provincialism and dullness of Paris in the 11th century. compared to the lavishly decorated Kyiv.

The rural population lived in villages - in all. The center of several villages was churchyard- a village with a church. Log huts with earthen floors were heated without a chimney, in black, illuminated by a torch. The windows were covered with a bullish bubble. Ordinary people used clay or wooden utensils. They slept on benches, without pillows.

There were two types of residential buildings:

-northern(log walls, floor raised above the ground, large stove);

-southern(the floor is recessed, a small adobe stove).

Nutrition . The basis of the diet was plant and animal products - bread, vegetables, fish, and less often - meat. Potatoes were replaced by turnips. The Russians did not know strong alcohol; they drank honey intoxicating drinks.

Cloth . The main type of clothing was a shirt: made from expensive fabrics among the nobility, homespun, coarse votola among common people. Men wore long pants - " ports, or leggings" The outerwear of ordinary people was retinue- a long, tight-fitting robe. Women's clothing – sundress, headscarf - ubrus. The princes wore cloaks fastened at the shoulder - “ disgustingly"and fur coats (" casings"), leather boots. Lapti- lychenitsy With by them were peasant shoes. The nobility, following Byzantine traditions, wore underwear. Anna Yaroslavna amazed the French royal court not only with her literacy, but also with her use of nightgowns.

Zhealth . Anthropologists believe that in Rus' the average life expectancy was 32–44 years, and in Western Europe – 30–35 years. Common diseases were scurvy, rickets, caries - diseases associated with lack of food and poor quality of nutrition. The crowded urban population created conditions for the spread of plague epidemics.

Was widespread bathhouse. In Nestor’s PVL a description of the Novgorod bathhouse is given: “The wooden bathhouses will be burned with ramen and will undress and be naked. And they will douse themselves with strong kvass, and take young rods, and beat themselves and will finish themselves off as soon as they come out alive. And they will douse themselves with cold water, and so they will come to life. And they do this every day, not tormented by anyone, but tormenting themselves. And then they perform rituals for themselves, not torture.” In the development of hygienic skills, Rus' was ahead of Europe, where there was a ban on washing off dirt from the body by the Catholic Church.

Entertainment . The amusement of the nobility was falconry and hound hunting ( "Lovy") and friendly feasts. The common people sang songs, danced in circles, played the harp and pipes, and organized buffoons and games.

Thus, The culture of Ancient Rus' before the Mongol conquest was strongly influenced by Byzantium and developed in common with Western European culture.