Art of Ancient Egypt Sculptural portrait of the scribe Kaya. The scribe Kaya sits with his legs crossed as if alive
Slide 1
Anna Andreevna Akhmatova
1889-1966
Slide 2
Glorification of Scribes
Wise scribes of the times of the successors of the gods themselves, who predicted the future, their names will be preserved forever. They left, having completed their time, All their loved ones were forgotten. They did not build themselves pyramids of copper or tombstones of bronze. They did not leave behind heirs, Children who preserved their names. But they left their legacy in the scriptures, in the teachings they made. The scriptures became their priests, And the writing palette became their son. Their pyramids are books of teachings, Their child is a reed pen, Their spouse is the surface of a stone, Both great and small are all their children, Because the scribe is their head.
Slide 3
Doors and houses were built, but they collapsed, The funeral priests disappeared, Their monuments were covered with dirt, Their tombs were forgotten. But their names are pronounced when reading these books, Written while they lived, And the memory of the one who wrote them is Eternal. Become a scribe, put it in your heart, So that your name becomes the same. A book is better than a painted tombstone and a solid wall. What is written in the book builds houses and pyramids in the hearts of those who repeat the names of the scribes, so that the truth is on the lips, a man fades away, his body becomes dust, all his loved ones disappear from the earth, but the scriptures make him remember through the lips of those who convey it into the mouth others.. A book is more necessary than a built house, Better than tombs in the West, Better than a luxurious palace, Better than a monument in the temple.
Slide 4
Is there anyone like Djedefhor somewhere? Is there anyone like Imhotep? There is no one among us like Nefri And Hetty, the first of all. I will remind you of the name of Ptahemjhuti and Khakheperra-seneb. Is there anyone like Ptahhotep Or Kares? The sages who predicted the future - It turned out as their lips said. It is written in their books, It exists as a saying. Their heirs are children different people, As if they were all their own children. They hid their magic from people, But they are read in instructions. They left, Their names disappeared with them, But the scriptures force us to remember them.
Slide 6
When the fellahin workers, led by the French archaeologist Auguste Mariette, entered the serdab (room for the statue of the deceased) of Kaya's tomb in Saqqara in 1850, rays of light cut through the darkness and fell on the eyes of the statue. The workers fled in horror, but a few minutes later, with pickaxes at the ready and shouting “Shaitan! Shaitan!” they rushed into the gap, attacking the “evil one” who pierced them with his gaze. Marietta had to defend the statue and calm the angry workers with a shovel and such and such a mother... Nowadays this statue is a decoration of the Egyptian hall of the Louvre.
The scribe is depicted sitting cross-legged on the ground. On his knees is an unrolled papyrus scroll; he holds the rest of the scroll in his left hand. The right hand once held a reed kalam. Papyrus scrolls were usually 1.5 to 2 m long and about 20 cm wide. They were made from the peeled core of a papyrus stem of a certain thickness, cut into strips, which were then folded in a certain order and placed under a press. Most often, the Egyptians wrote out signs in columns, from right to left.
Many statues of this type have survived; The bodies of the scribes are rendered more or less similarly, but the heads are portraits, individual and often very expressive. This scribe has an attentive gaze. Pursed lips convey readiness to write down what they hear.
Only noble Egyptians sat in armchairs, and employees were often placed directly on the floor. However, in fact, the fact that a particular type of sculptural monument was designed to indicate a certain official status shows how significant and respected it was. The ability to write was the basis for official career, and officials were the axis of the administrative system. The necessary knowledge was taught in schools, but only a few boys managed to get there. They studied hieroglyphic writing and faster cursive handwriting, the regions and cities of Egypt, the names of plants and animals, the names of the gods and their festival days, the art of properly addressing higher members of the official hierarchy. “Teachings” were used to teach them to behave correctly, to be attentive to their superiors, and fair to subordinates; most of the time was devoted to teaching them self-discipline: “A scribe, refined in heart, patient in judgment, whose words are rejoiced when heard, skilled in hieroglyphics. There's nothing he doesn't know."
The public administration has always been strong in Egypt. Theoretically, the pharaoh owned the entire country and its people; the entire harvest was transferred to his hands, and he redistributed it. In fact, everything was different. The peasants kept a specified amount of food for their own food, and taxes were imposed on the number of bulls and the approximate harvest. The temples had storage facilities, from where the collected provisions went to the priesthood, officials and employees engaged, for example, in the construction of a pyramid or a rock royal tomb. Organizing the provision of everything necessary for the thousands of people who built the pyramids of Giza would have been impossible without highly qualified officials. Without scribes, the annual flood of the Nile would also have led to chaos. Covered with silt, the fertile land was measured again every time the water returned to the river bed. Life on the banks of the Nile was possible only thanks to the flooding of the river; the correct distribution of the newly measured lands was possible only with the help of experienced employees.
In the art of other ancient civilizations, war and combat were revered and extolled much more often than in Egypt. Deserts, naturally isolating the country, making it difficult to attack external enemies, and the established way of life brought officials much greater glory. According to the royal ideology, the pharaoh himself defended the country from external threat. He himself defeated the enemies of Egypt. At the top of the social pyramid, which he headed, there were officials, priests and military leaders, who often disputed the primacy of their importance for the country.
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Civilization Ancient Egypt left humanity many masterpieces. These include sculptural monuments, obelisks and stelae, relief compositions and fresco paintings decorating the walls of mortuary temples and tombs.
Sculptural monuments
The sculpture of Ancient Egypt, which had a ritual purpose and was associated with the cult of the dead, makes a majestic impression. Egyptian ideas about eternal life assumed the existence of not only an immortal soul, but also an incorruptible body. This led to the emergence of the ritual of mummification (embalming) and the creation of statues that the pharaoh ordered for burial during his lifetime.
The characteristic features of Egyptian sculpture were the frieze structure of the composition, strict clarity of lines and clarity of contour, extremely generalized volumes, and iconic expressiveness of silhouettes. The person was depicted at an ideal age, that is, having reached the peak of spiritual and physical strength. Egyptian sculpture strictly obeyed the canon - a set of rules that developed in the process artistic practice and established traditions. Since the sculpture was designed for frontal perception, the representation of the figure on a plane combined frontal and profile elements: the head and legs were turned in profile, the shoulders were turned in front, and the torso was three-quarters.Particularly strict requirements concerned the images of gods in pharaohs. They can be easily recognized by their height, which significantly exceeded the height of the other participants in the composition; in their appearance there is imperturbable calm and confidence in the power of the royal | authorities. Pharaoh Amenemhat III sits majestically on the throne. The pharaoh's pose is traditional and canonical. Undoubtedly, before us is the image of a strong-willed and strong ruler, whose reign was marked by the power and prosperity of the country. The funeral inscription says this about him:
He is knowledge in the hearts,
His eyes follow everyone
He is the sun, seeing with his rays,
It illuminates both lands better than the sun.
He made Egypt prosper better than the Nile.
He feeds those who follow his path.
Individual traits are masterfully conveyed; high cheekbones, heavy eyelids covering the eyes, sharp folds on the sides of the authoritative mouth, a clearly defined chin. I enhance the contrasts of light in the shadows on the smooth surface of granite! expressiveness of the image.
The concept of “canon” also included certainty of pose (standing figures with their left leg put forward, sitting on a throne or kneeling), clear symmetry, proportionality and careful elaboration of all details. The main task of the sculptor was to achieve the most accurate resemblance to the portrait -removable. His face was supposed to embody detachment from everything earthly, indifference to the joys and misfortunes of life. And indeed, each statue looks into the unknown, endless distance, into Eternity...
There was also a traditional coloring of the statues: male figures were dark brown, female figures were yellow. Hair was always black, clothes were always white. Men's clothing consisted of a short loincloth, women - a long, straight dress that fitted the body with wide straps. The material for the statues was wood of various species or stone: granite, basalt, sandstone, limestone.
People who were completely dependent on the power of the pharaoh were portrayed in a completely different way. In the sculptural portrait of the scribe Kaya from the tomb at Saqqara, a man is depicted sitting cross-legged, ready to write down every word of the owner. On her lap lies an unfolded sheet of papyrus, and in her right hand is a writing brush. The scribe's forward-looking gaze is attentive and vigilant, his dexterous fingers are mobile. The wide-open eyes are so skillfully inlaid with alabaster, black stone, silver and rock crystal that they seem alive. He was accustomed to listen carefully, obey and follow the instructions of his master.
Ancient Egyptian masters achieved exceptional perfection in conveying portrait likeness and individual features in wooden sculpture. When in the middle of the 19th century. During excavations of a tomb in Saqqara, a wooden sculpture of a representative man with a staff in his hand was discovered, local residents They gasped: “This is our village headman!” Since then, Egyptologists have called the royal dignitary Kaaper the “Village Headman.” Made from several pieces of fig wood, the sculpture was painted, the eyes were inlaid with quartz, and the eyelids were made of copper. Kaaper's face is full of self-esteem, his head is raised proudly, his gaze is directed into the distance.
During the Middle Kingdom it actively developed small plastic associated with the funeral cult. At the same time, a type of cubic sculpture was created, when the body of a seated figure was shaped like a cube, the head was a ball, and the hands lay symmetrically on the knees or one of them was bent at the elbow. Later, during the New Kingdom, this type of sculpture became widespread.
Among the masterpieces of round sculpture is the statue of a married couple, Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret, from the tomb in Medum. Each of them is captured in a strictly canonical pose. The figure of the prince is given a solemn appearance, his face is individualized. Protruding cheekbones, full cheeks, a straight nose, rather thick lips, an expression of dignity and greatness on the face, straight posture and a proudly raised head - this is what the Egyptian master was able to convey. The prince is wearing a short white bandage, and on his neck is an amulet strung on a white thread gray and a bright green bead, which stand out especially impressively against the brown-red body.The hand gesture testifies to the prince’s special involvement in the sacred sacrament.The prince's wife is depicted in the same majestic pose. The soft rounded oval of the face, the almond-shaped shape of the eyes, the eyelids emphasized by contour lining, the prominently protruding eyebrows, the calm, confident gaze directed into eternity, convey feminine charm, dignity and charm. Through White dress with wide straps, Nofret's graceful figure clearly appears. The body is covered with yellow ocher; against its background, a necklace of blue-green beads is especially expressive. The voluminous hairstyle is tied with a white ribbon with multi-colored rosettes. The backs of the chairs are covered with black hieroglyphs. Standing out brightly against the white limestone, they act as a worthy decorative frame for the figures.
Reliefs and frescoes
A prominent place in the art of Ancient Egypt was occupied by relief and fresco compositions, with the help of which the internal and external walls of mortuary temples, tombs, obelisks and steles were decorated. Their purpose was determined by the desire to glorify the power of the buried ruler and ensure his prosperity in the afterlife. The creation of reliefs and frescoes was also subject to strict canons.
The compositions were arranged in such a way that the figures and the intervals between them were given in strict proportion to the overall architectural ensemble. The human figure was depicted so that in the profile position of the head the eyes were fully visible, turned by the back of the palm of the hand with fingers of the same length. This method of depiction helped to show each part of the body most expressively, avoid contractions, and therefore preserve the integrity of the perception of images. Proportionality is one of the most important requirements of the canon. Each part of the body had a certain size. Social differences were emphasized by body size.
How were the registers (horizontal belts of temple walls) painted? Egyptian craftsmen most often used the flat relief technique, when the contour line was located below the background of the slab. First, the surface of the wall was prepared, and then the contours of the future pattern were applied to its leveled areas using a cutting tool. The figures were drawn in detail and carefully. Parallel lines denoted folds of clothing, wavy strands of fluffy wigs, and small folds of wide sleeves. At the same time, lighting sources were also taken into account, thanks to which an amazing effect of subtle vibration of surfaces was achieved.
Relief and fresco compositions were usually painted in colors that had symbolic meaning. IN color scheme combinations of several colors predominated: yellow, brown, green and blue, but at the same time they were distinguished by a variety of shades. And today the compositions of ancient Egyptian masters evoke our admiration. For example, white clothes were painted in such a way that the audience was given the complete illusion of the transparency of the fabric, through which the human body was visible. A barely noticeable blush glides across gentle women's faces...
What was depicted on the reliefs and frescoes? First of all, these are scenes of the afterlife, embalming and mourning of the dead, as well as rituals performed over the deceased during burial. Lines of servants march in clear, rhythmic rows bearing gifts to the deceased. With regal importance they lead the bulls, their movements are measured and relaxed. We see sacrificial tables laden with food.
The frescoes and reliefs are divided into four to six zones, each of which is filled with images of complete scenes. And all together they make up a single composition.
In the era of the Middle Kingdom, new stories appeared that reflected: firstly, military theme- episodes of battles, endless streams prisoners with captured trophies; secondly, scenes from everyday life working life Egyptians - hunting in the Nile thickets, fishing, eating. For example, many people work in the fields and gardens, men drive bulls, pull the horns of a stubborn goat, carry ducks in their hands, butcher the carcass of a bull, load a wicker basket onto the back of a donkey.
Significant changes were taking place in the visual arts of the New Kingdom. Thus, the features of the composition were special emotionality, decorative pomp, sophistication and elegance of lines, a sharp outline is replaced by a soft drawing. They offer greater freedom of movement and angles, brightness, and sophistication of color combinations. Pictures of the feasts and entertainments of the rulers allow one to judge the tastes and fashion of Egyptian society of that time. We see charming dancers with their arms raised high above their heads. Their dark bodies are decorated with belts, necklaces and bracelets, and tiaras on their heads. Particular attention is paid to the precise detailing of clothing, jewelry, and fluffy wigs.
Landscapes with animals and plants are becoming widespread. Despite the fact that Egyptian artists never painted from life, their powers of observation and excellent knowledge of animal habits cannot be denied. The depiction of various birds and fish is so true that modern zoologists can easily identify their species. By applying strokes of different colors along the main tone, the artists were able to convey the features of the plumage of birds, the characteristic coloring of animals, fluffy cat hair. With great grace, the artist painted fish frolicking in streams of water, wild ducks and gazelles among desert rocks, and a cat ready to pounce on prey.
In general, the murals of the royal tombs, executed with subtle artistic taste and skill, resembled a bright, unfolded papyrus scroll that could be “read” in the same way as sacred texts.
Treasures of Tutankhamun's tomb
The so-called Amarna period is considered a brilliant era in the development of the artistic culture of Ancient Egypt, the main achievements of which are associated with the reign of the reformer pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1368-1351 BC), who changed his name to Akhenaten, which meant “ pleasing to Aten." The result of his religious and political reform was the prohibition of numerous old cults and the introduction of monotheism - the worship of the sun god Aten, usually depicted as a solar disk with diverging rays. This was a bold and risky step on the part of the pharaoh, who opposed the powerful Theban priesthood. The capital was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten (the village that later arose in its place, El-Amarna, and gave the name to the original style in art).
The Amarna period brought great changes to the visual arts. Refusal to idealize images and accurately convey a person’s individual traits have become the main requirements for artists. A visual representation of this can be obtained from the sculptural and picturesque portraits Akhenaten. It is known that the pharaoh did not have a powerful physique; his appearance did not really correspond to the ideal of a heroic ruler. He was painfully thin and disproportionately built. An elongated oval face, a weighted lower jaw, a small head on an elongated neck, thin legs, a bulging belly could hardly inspire artists. Not daring to resist the canon, they created a completely realistic image of the ruler. This can be seen by looking at the relief “Worship of the sun god Aten”, where the king looks almost comical.
However, this is not a caricature, but the result of the artists’ desire to more accurately convey the essence of the model.
IN late XIX V. Archaeological excavations began in Tel el-Amarna, revealing to humanity many artistic treasures of world significance. A true masterpiece created in Akhenaten’s court workshop is the portrait of the pharaoh’s wife, Queen Nefertiti, “beautiful in face,” “pacifying the sun with a sweet voice.” This is exactly what was said about her in the poetic works of that time. Her sculptural portrait, discovered in 1912 during excavations by the German archaeologist L. Borhardt, became a real event. She was very eloquent short note in the archival report: “There is no point in describing - just look!”
It is truly difficult to describe in words the spiritual fragility of this light, swift profile, amazing in expressiveness. female face, crowned with a blue crown, the grace of a flexible neck, the subtlety and femininity of appearance. The almost unbroken symmetry and the amazing sense of proportion in the rendering of plastic forms cannot but attract attention. Truly regal posture, capable of arousing reverent admiration and admiration for the perfection of a beautiful appearance. Before us is not just a proud queen, but a certain feminine ideal in a broader and timeless sense. This amazing portrait, which created a new idea of beauty, rightfully ranks place of honor among the most poetic female images.
With the death of Akhenaten, artistic innovations and the search for his own style did not disappear. Akhenaten's work was continued by his successor Tutankhamun (1351-1342 BC), whose name is widely known today thanks to archaeological excavations of his tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
In 1922, the English archaeologist Howard Carter (1873-1939) made a sensational discovery. He managed to discover the famous treasures of the tomb of the pharaoh, fortunately not looted by that time. Twelve steps led to a walled door with the seal of Tutankhamun. There were all sorts of items here! Richly decorated boxes, chairs, armchairs, gaming tables, gilded chariots, models of sea ships, painted caskets and chests, military weapons, ceremonial dishes, large and small statues, images of animals...
In the burial chamber there were several sarcophagi, the last of which contained the mummy of Tutankhamun, decorated precious stones. But the most remarkable find was golden mask Tutankhamun, expressively conveying the features of the pharaoh. The gaze of his wide-open almond-shaped eyes is directed into Eternity. Symbols of royal power (image of a kite and a snake), a striped headdress with long ends descending to the chest, inlay with gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian and multi-colored smalts - all convey the greatness and divine origin of the pharaoh.
Despite the short duration of the Amarna period, which lasted only 17 years, it left a deep mark on the history of world art.
Egypt is gradually losing its former greatness, but artistic traditions Egyptian art style did not completely disappear. In the coming era of Antiquity, they “sprouted” in the paintings of Pompeii. Interest in the original culture of Egypt is re-emerging in late XVIII V. in connection with the Egyptian campaign of Napoleon Bo-Naparte. In the second half of the 19th century. French impressionist artists will turn to the artistic culture of Egypt. Stylization of Egyptian art will also be in Russia in the eras of classicism (for example, St. Petersburg, Pavlovsk), eclecticism and modernism.
Music, theater and poetry
The artistic culture of Ancient Egypt cannot be imagined without achievements in other areas of creativity - music, theater and poetry.
Egypt was the first country where people enjoyed special honor and respect professional musicians. Not a single theatrical performance, the so-called mysteries, in honor of the most revered gods, took place without their participation. Particularly lush musical accompaniment accompanied the cult of the god Osiris, the patron and judge of the dead, who personified the dying and resurrecting nature. His life, death and resurrection determined the main content of theatrical performances. The main roles were usually played by priests, but sometimes the pharaoh himself took part in them. By the way, music education was part of the compulsory school education program in Ancient Egypt.
Despite the fact that none of the texts of such theatrical performances and cult services have reached us, there is an opinion that the beginning of theater with extensive musical accompaniment was laid by the funeral ritual. It used dialogues between gods performed by priests.
Time has not preserved ancient examples of Egyptian music, and perhaps we would not have learned anything about the nature of its sound if not for the works of other forms of art. Wall paintings in the tombs of the pharaohs, priceless lines of poetic works reveal interesting details musical life Ancient Egypt, they recreate pictures of the musical life of this country.
Bas-reliefs and paintings depict groups of dancers and musicians: harpists, flutists, singers, united in entire orchestras and choirs. Choir singers usually clap their hands and their singing is accompanied by dancing. Images of musicians allowed researchers to express an opinion about the use of cheironomy, that is, special hand gestures to express rhythm and melody. What was the music talking about? These were probably hymns to the gods and pharaohs, love songs, and songs of mourners at funerals. Here, for example, is the wonderful “Harpist’s Song” (XXI century, BC):
Follow your heart's desires
As long as you exist
Scent your head with myrrh,
Dress yourself in the finest fabrics,
Anoint yourself with the most wonderful incense
From the sacrifices of the gods.
Multiply your wealth...
Do your work on earth
At the behest of your heart,
Until that day of mourning comes to you.
The weary of heart does not hear their cries
And scream
Lamentations do not save anyone from the grave.
So celebrate a wonderful day
And don't exhaust yourself.
You see, no one took their property with them.
You see, none of those who left came back.
Everything passes, everything is subject to death, neither pyramids nor tombs can save you from it. Therefore, live for today, enjoy all the joys of life and do not think that sooner or later everything will come to an end...
Superbly preserved frescoes allow us to judge the most popular musical instruments of Ancient Egypt. The most honorable place among them is occupied by the harp. The first images of this musical instrument date back to the era of the Old Kingdom, when the harp was shaped more like a simple bow. Later, in the era of Ramesses III, the harp was covered with fine carvings, gold and tortoiseshell bone. The base of the instrument was decorated with symbolic figures of sphinxes, animals, heads of gods and goddesses. Flutes, sistrums (noise instruments) and drums of various types were also widespread. They were accompanied by hymns, songs, poems and dances.
Questions and tasks
1. What are characteristics Ancient Egyptian sculpture? What expression does the canon find in the sculptural portraits of the pharaohs?
2. What do you know about the relief and pictorial compositions of Egyptian artists? What was their special skill? What are the main subjects of reliefs and fresco paintings? What connection exists between them and architectural structures?
3. Compare the standard from Ur with the ancient Egyptian reliefs known to you. What do they have in common and what are the differences? What brings these cultures together and what separates them?
4*. What role did theater, music and poetry play in the life of Egyptian society? Name the most popular ones in Ancient Egypt musical instruments. To answer, use pictorial and poetic evidence of that era.
Creative workshop
1. Carefully examine the sculptural portrait of the scribe Kaya and read “Glorification of the Scribes” translated by A. A. Akhmatova. What an image creative person in your imagination? How does it correspond to the literary source? What connection exists between them? What qualities does a sculptural portrait complement it with?
2. Describe the sculptural portrait of Nefertiti. How true do you think the statement is that after millennia she remains the personification female beauty, spirituality and grace?
3. Compare some images of Egyptian pharaohs. What do you think the masters who created them primarily wanted to convey? Try to create a portrait of the pharaoh yourself, following the traditions of the Egyptian canon.
4. What is the influence of the religious ideas of the Egyptians on the art of Ancient Egypt?
5. Tell us about the history of creation and the most important exhibits of some collections of Egyptian art in largest museums world: Louvre (Paris), British museum(London), Metropolitan (New York), Hermitage (St. Petersburg), Pushkin Museum. A. S. Pushkin (Moscow), art museums of Cairo, Berlin, etc.
6. Look art films(“Pharaoh”, 1966; “Cleopatra”, 1963) or theater performances(“Caesar and Cleopatra”). How they are conveyed character traits artistic culture of the era of Ancient Egypt? Write a review of one of the films or theater performances you have watched.
Topics of projects, abstracts or messages
“Fine art of Ancient Egypt”; “Canon in Ancient Egyptian Art”; “Ritual, Myth and Art of Ancient Egypt”; “Masterpieces of Ancient Egyptian Sculptural Portrait”; “Relief and fresco compositions of Ancient Egypt”; “What can the treasures of Tutankhamun’s tomb tell us?”; “Pictorial and sculptural decorations of sarcophagi and tombs of Ancient Egypt”; “Fayum Portrait (based on materials from the collection of lectures State Museum fine arts them. A. S. Pushkin in Moscow)"; “Music and dance in the life of the ancient Egyptians”; “Excursion through the Egyptian halls of the Hermitage”; “The history of the creation of a collection of Egyptian art at the Pushkin Museum. A. S. Pushkin"; “Egyptian motifs in works of Russian art”; “Masterpieces of Ancient Egyptian Literature”; "The place and significance of the ancient Egyptian civilization in the history of world artistic culture."
Books for further reading
Afanasyeva V.K., Lukonin V.G., Pomerantseva N.A. The Art of the Ancient East: A Small History of Arts. M., 1976.
Dmitrieva N. A. Short story arts: essays. Vol. 1. M., 1969.
Dmitrieva N. A., Vinogradova N. A. Art Ancient world. M., 1986.
Mathieu M. E. The Art of Ancient Egypt. M., 1970.
Mathieu M. E. In the time of Nefertiti. L., 1985.
Pavlov V.V., Khojash S.I. Egyptian plastic surgery of small forms. M., 1985.
When preparing the material, the text of the textbook “World Artistic Culture. From the origins to the 18th century" (Author G. I. Danilova)
Sculptural portrait scribe Kaya. The scribe Kaya sits with his legs crossed, as if alive. On his feet he holds an unfolded scroll of papyrus and catches every word of his master. From the tomb at Saqqara. Painted limestone. V Dynasty. Mid 3rd millennium BC e. Louvre, Paris.
The “Rosetta Stone,” a basalt slab with texts in Greek and ancient Egyptian, found near Rosetta (now Rashid) in Egypt in 1799. It was this stone that enabled the French scientist Jacques-François Champollion to begin deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. And now scientists can read inscriptions in tombs and texts on ancient papyri.
The Egyptian people created an artistic culture that captured a harmonious picture of the universe. At its core religious ideas about the immortality of man. All the artistic values that have come down to us indicate that the Egyptians cared little about everyday life, concentrating all their efforts on preparing for life after death. Therefore, Egyptian art is inhabited by images of the afterlife, born of religion and mythology.
Egyptian beliefs. The Egyptians worshiped certain animals. They considered crocodiles, some birds, for example, falcon, vulture, ibis, as well as cats, jackals, and some insects, sacred. Scarab dung beetle. In temples dedicated to the gods, services were held in their honor. The rulers generously donated temples, especially after successful campaigns of conquest. The priests were entitled to a certain portion of the spoils of war. The main task The priests performed rituals; during services they sang hymns - excerpts from the “Book of the Dead”.
Cult of the dead Cult of the dead - this is how the meaning is usually interpreted religious beliefs Egyptians Egyptian myths tell about the creation of the world, the punishment of man for sins, about the struggle of the sun god Ra with the forces of darkness in the form of the serpent Apophis, about the death and resurrection of the god Osiris - the patron and judge of dead souls. “I didn’t kill. I didn't order the killing. I did no harm to anyone” - every Egyptian had to know these words in order to pronounce them after death at the trial of Osiris. And he also had to preserve his body for eternity in order to find peace and bliss. This is how the image of mummification and the tradition of preserving mummies in the tomb arose.
Pyramids The Egyptians' ideas about the afterlife are also expressed in architectural images. The symbol of Egyptian architecture was the pyramid - the grandiose tomb of the pharaohs. Deified during their lifetime, the pharaohs prepared their tombs for a long time and carefully. The shape of the pyramid was outlined in ancient times: in the 28th century. BC e. According to the design of the architect Imhotep, the Pyramid of Djoser was erected, located on the southern outskirts of Memphis.
Women of Egypt History has brought to us the names of two outstanding women of Egypt. Queen Hatshepsut (c. - 1503 BC) and Queen Nefertiti (c. - 1336 BC).
Temples of Egypt About high level The development of architecture is evidenced not only by pyramids, but also by temples, the ruins of which are preserved along the banks of the Nile. The most famous are Karnak and Luxor. It was from the Luxor Temple that the sphinxes, personifying Amenhotep the Third, were taken to Russia and placed on the University Embankment in St. Petersburg.
Ruins of the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Mid 16th century BC. The temple at Karnak, the main sanctuary of Amon in Thebes, became a kind of stone chronicle of Egypt; each pharaoh added new premises, sometimes remodeling the old ones. The temple consists of more than a hundred vast rooms, huge courtyards, countless alleys and passages.
Conclusion. Egypt is one of ancient states world, and its culture is one of the earliest contributions to the history of human culture. Ancient Egyptian culture had strong influence on European culture. The Egyptian people created an artistic culture that captured a harmonious picture of the universe. It is based on religious ideas about human immortality. All artistic values that have come down to us indicate that the Egyptians were concerned about preparing for life after death. Therefore, Egyptian art is inhabited by images of the afterlife, born of religion and mythology.
DETERMINING THE PROBLEM OF THE LESSON
- Just look what the Egyptian nobles and rulers taught their children! - Antoshka exclaimed, showing the book:
“Be hostile to the poor. He lets the crowds confined to the workers’ houses become enraged.” “Suppress the crowd, destroy the flame that comes from it. He who is poor is an enemy.”
“Perhaps in Egypt the poor were constantly revolting!”
“The papyri indeed mention the uprisings in Egypt,” answered the Source Expert. - But they are quite rare. For centuries, the sources have not preserved the memory of the rebellions of the lower against the higher.
Compare Antoshka’s opinion and the facts given by the Source Expert. What is the question? Compare it with the author’s (p. 278).
LET'S REMEMBER WHAT WE KNOW
Explain what society, community, nobility, slaves are. (Dictionary)
When and how was a unified state formed in Egypt? (§ 7) What was the role of the pharaoh as a god? (§ 9)
WE SOLVE THE PROBLEM, DISCOVER NEW KNOWLEDGE
There is no consensus in science about how Egyptian society was organized. The text of this paragraph is one of the possible reconstructions.
1. Palace, estate, city...
How did the position of nobles and scribes differ from the position of ordinary workers? . Are these differences fair in your opinion? person XXI century? . From the perspective of a resident of Ancient Egypt? (Use productive reading - see example on page 9)
From the golden window of the palace, the pharaoh watched as the Sun-Ra caressed the obelisk, a high stone pillar in the square, with its rays. When the shadow from the obelisk became the shortest, it was noon - the time of acceptance important decisions ruler The era of the disintegration of Egypt into regions, the era of the destruction of canals, famine and riots has ended. The pharaoh nodded, and the scribes scribbled on papyrus what the Divine commanded to be carved in stone: “I conquered both countries, established order in the south and north of Egypt.” The pharaoh's gaze fell on the small figures bustling about in the square - his nobles were in a hurry on business...
Statue of the nobleman Kaaper (Village Chief) from the tomb of Kaaper at Saqqara.
The head of the canals - nobleman Akhtby - came out of the palace gates, sat down on a stretcher, and 8 slaves quickly carried him to the pier. Having personally descended into the well-meter, the nobleman was convinced that the water level was at the required level - the flood season was over. Having boarded the ship, the nobleman sat down under the canopy, waved his hand, and 20 slaves lowered their oars into the cool water. Through a recently dug canal, the nobleman arrived in the Fayum Lowland. The former swamp has turned into a huge reservoir. A network of small canals spread around, irrigating the fields and gardens of the new oasis according to Akhtoy’s plan. Satisfied with the trust, the nobleman returned to his own estate. Sipping beer from a bowl through a golden straw, he thought: “How good it is that Pharaoh granted me two large fields in Upper Egypt - the best barley grows there! But the best meat and milk come from my ancestral possessions in the delta - Lower Egypt."
In the house of an Egyptian nobleman
Statue of the scribe Kaya. Mid-3rd millennium BC
The nobleman stretched sweetly, anticipating the excitement of the evening hunt for hippopotamuses, and retired to rest, giving the last order to the scribe...
The scribe Kai bowed to the nobleman and once again thanked the god Thoth for allowing him, the son of a simple farmer, to hear the teaching of one scribe to his children: “Turn your heart to books! Ask for advice from someone who knows more than you! Be a scribe - he will be freed from the work of a hoe, you will not carry baskets, your body will be smooth and your hand will be soft.” Having saved up funds, Kai entered the school of scribes. He learned hieroglyphs, chanted texts about gods and pharaohs, scratched calculations of field sizes on shards, and suffered blows with sticks for mistakes on papyrus. And now, unlike her farming relatives, Kai wears not a short, rough belt, but a long skirt made of fine linen, sleeps on a bed, and not on a reed rug, and puts a pillow under her head, not a stone.
Throughout the drought season, the scribe received and wrote down information for the nobleman about how in different villages of his region-nome they were preparing for the season of the Nile flood. The elders reported that the dams around the fields had been renewed and reinforced with stones. A work detachment had to be sent to the large canal to repair the dam, which was destroyed by the flow of water. There must be no mistake here - otherwise five new villages will be left without water and crops. And now the nobleman instructs him to come to the beginning of plowing in his native village! I need my wife to buy a gift for her father...
Mistress and maid. Tomb painting
The scribe's wife Nefert, in front of a copper mirror, lined her eyes with dark paint, put on her best wig and went out into the narrow street of the city. Both sons played catch with the neighbor children. Not far from the shore, bricks were drying in the sun. Nefert accepted bows from the artisans and herself bowed to the noble man with a necklace-mantle made of silver and precious lapis lazuli. At the city market, grain was quickly exchanged for sandals, cucumbers and onions for pots. Having bargained with the coppersmith, Nefert exchanged for three pieces of fabric a washstand and a figurine of the goddess Bastet, a cat who protects grain from mice, for her husband’s relatives.
2. Village, barracks, prison...
In what cases could different groups of ordinary workers in Egypt be satisfied, and in what cases could they be dissatisfied with their fate? Draw a conclusion on the problem.
And so the scribe Kaya arrived in his native village for the festival of the beginning of sowing. While the elder and relatives are walking towards his tent, the scribe reflects: “It’s not like in the delta here, where you can throw grains into the earthen slurry immediately after the water recedes, and then simply drive a dozen sheep so that their hooves cover the grains with earth. No, in Upper Egypt we need to loosen the soil first.” The scribe takes out papyrus indicating the grain measured for sowing. The elder of the village community bows, placing his hands on his shoulder and mouth. Farmers wear it around their necks blue flowers lotus and harness the cows to the plows. Some wave sticks and shout: “Oh! Go! - and the cows move forward, pulling the plows behind them. Others, bent over, hold the handles tightly so that the wooden opener with a copper tip does not wobble in the viscous, damp earth. The sowers follow them, throwing grains... After plowing, the scribe was treated to barley cakes, on which honey, grapes, dates, and figs were laid out for the sake of the holiday. The elder expressed the hope that when the scribe Kaya arrives in three months to take the third share of the harvest to the pharaoh’s barns, no one will have to be beaten with sticks for the delay.
Farmers' work. Water is poured onto the upper fields using a shaduf (a lever with a bucket and a weight at the other end)
Slave preparing beer. Figurine from the tomb
From his native village of free farmers, the scribe Kai went to the settlement of the dependent “royal people”. He gave the commander of the work detachment two bags of barley for sowing. The commander waved his whip, leading the workers out into the field: “Those who work poorly will receive 100 blows, and those who are skillful and diligent in their work will be given a reward at lunchtime - a cup of wine.”
Two slaves, dragging bags behind the scribe, licked their lips greedily.
Yes,” one noted, “the “royal people” live easier than the free ones. You just need to follow orders correctly, and the bosses and scribes do the thinking for you.
Since childhood, you have lived in well-fed slavery and do not know what freedom is! - answered the other. “I cried when I, a free nomad, was captured by Pharaoh’s warriors in battle. The nobleman called us “alive-killed,” counting us like donkeys.
The society of Ancient Egypt resembled a “pyramid”.
APPLYING KNOWLEDGE
Do It electronic presentation"Drawings and sculptures depicting the life of different levels of society in Ancient Egypt."
