The basis of Chinese culture lies. Chinese culture: uniqueness and originality in every feature

→ Culture of Ancient China

The ideological core of Chinese culture was Confucianism - philosophical and ethical doctrine that arose in the 6th century BC. Its founder was the sage Confucius(551 -479 BC). Confucianism asserted the eternity and immutability of society and the world as a whole. Each member of society must occupy the place initially predetermined for him. Humanity and mercy must permeate relations between people. Everyone is obliged to help others, to achieve what they themselves strive for and not to do what they do not want for themselves. This ethical position was later formulated in and received the name golden rule of morality.

Confucius identified society with the state. The state was understood by Confucius as big family, in which the sovereign (emperor) is "Son of Heaven" , And "Father and Mother of the People" . In such a state, strict rather than legal mechanisms dominated. For a long time, Confucianism performed a state function in China. ideology.

Another important direction of Chinese philosophy was Taoism (founder Lao Tzu 6th century BC). The central concept of Taoism was proclaimed "dao" - path. From the point of view of Taoism, everything in the world is in motion, in change, in transit, everything is impermanent and finite. It is necessary to follow the established world order corresponding to the Tao. To ensure immortality, you need to perform special exercises reminiscent of yoga.

Chinese for a long time adhered to the belief in their exclusivity and considered all other peoples to be barbarians until the middle of the 18th century.

Chinese civilization is the oldest of civilizations. Already in the 10th century BC. it was a highly developed culture. China gave the world hieroglyphic writing, silk, paper, phosphorus, compass, plow, gunpowder, engine. The achievements of Chinese medicine, astronomy, and mathematics are known throughout the world.

In China there was no concept of God. The world is not created by God, it is revealed from its own hidden basis, like from a flower bud.

In Chinese culture there was no concept of spirit and body, no idea of ​​matter. The world was perceived as undivided into spirit and matter. Man is equal to the cosmic forces of Heaven and occupies a central place in the universe. The approach to any phenomenon of life begins, first of all, with the concepts of morality (Confucianism).

Among the categories of Chinese culture, the most important CI . It is not translated into Russian. It is understood approximately like this: just as ice, when heated, turns into water, and water into steam, so Qi, condensing, becomes a substance, thinning out in spirit. Everything that exists in the world is QI; there is nothing except QI. Qi is the primordial spirit in primordial nature. The stone also contains the beginnings of spirituality. Qi is mobile, like everything in the world. Here is the mountain. It is a mountain when it arose, but over time it will age, crumble with the wind, become sand, and sooner or later a new mountain will arise from the sand. So, Qi is the vital energy that fills the world.

Chinese thinking was different from the cause-and-effect mentality of Europeans. For example, what do metal, the West, the color white, light and justice have in common? The European will not see the connection here. Everything is clear to the Chinese: the primary element in all this is metal.

This type of thinking is based on theory of sympathy. Positive sphere of life - Ian , negative - Yin . Like interacts with like. “You cannot pick a flower without disturbing the stars,” said the Chinese poet.

Chinese culture optimistic. The cosmos is harmonious, orderly, full of life and energy. The sky is the masculine principle, full of Yang charge. The earth, as the opposite of the sky, is the feminine principle of Yin. The soil signifies the harmony of Yang and Yin.

Space : the east is dominated by a young positive force (tree), which has matured in the south. South is fire, West is metal, North is water. The North was perceived by the Chinese as a kingdom of cold and darkness, from where wild nomads launched raids. The south is the source of bright and hot Yang power. This was reflected in the planning of Chinese cities: they were built strictly in a square with the main gate in the south. Facing south, the emperor sat on the throne. At first, the Chinese believed that the sky was round and the earth was square. Then they realized that the sky is an emptiness in which life force CI.

Concept of life and death: “Life is just swimming with the flow, death is just a rest along the way.” This is how the Chinese imagined the world. There were no teachings about the immortality of the soul in Chinese philosophy. Life and death are two indispensable phases of a single process of time. Life is good, death is evil and must be overcome. One of the religions, Taoism, developed ways to prolong life: special sexual practices, breathing exercises, meditation, gymnastics.

Arts and literature: The Chinese universe is built on beauty. The cosmos is “patterned”; the pattern later became the meaning of “written sign”, writing, “culture expressed in a written sign”. One of the main concepts of Chinese culture is the concept WEN . Wen is a cosmic principle that expresses patterning and decoration in the Universe. The shaman always had this patterned tattoo as a sign of sacredness. Wen is a manifestation of the cosmos in a person. Raising his head up, the sage studies the constellations. Lowering your head down - comprehends hidden meaning animal and bird tracks. The result of this peering was the emergence of hieroglyphic writing and culture. Writing, according to the Chinese, carries the great Tao - the path. Hence the truly reverent attitude of the people towards the written text. Pursuing literature is a noble and worthy cause. But under real literature What was understood was not a novel, but philosophical prose.

Chinese art - this is an image not of things, but of ideas, meanings. One-color paintings occupy a special place in it. The image is applied in black ink to white paper or lightly dyed silk. The artists sought to convey the idea of ​​emptiness, the airy “groundlessness” of all things. The focus in Chinese painting was on searching for harmony and unity with the cosmos.

Religion: Confucianism can hardly be considered a religion. This is an ethical-political doctrine. There were many mixed beliefs and cults. This is a syncretic belief, like Taoism. The religions of China allowed for the existence of different beliefs. There was no monotheism. Buddhism came to China from India and was transformed. The Chinese could confess three religions at the same time: at work to be a Confucian, with friends and in the lap of nature - a Taoist, alone with oneself a Buddhist (reflections on life and death).

Social values:

Belief in the possibility of creation moral society, which required ideal, highly developed leaders;

The family is a special clan, the prototype of the state. A man who properly supports his family can govern the state;

The ideal of a noble husband, official, monarch.

Played a huge role in ancient Chinese culture nobility of birth and the presence of high-ranking ancestors.

The ruling stratum was recruited through examinations. Any resident had the right to take an exam on knowledge of Confucian texts and commentary on literature and could receive one or another academic degree.

For a commoner who has successfully passed even the lowest district exam for a degree syutsaya(a blossoming talent), my whole life changed dramatically. He was exempt from taxes, military and labor service, and wore the robe and headdress of a scientist. This is how it was formed layer of managers(tangerine - tangerines - from the word to command). The terms “official” and “intellectual” coincided in Chinese culture. All this explains the exceptional value of education.

Chinese education was of a distinctly humanitarian nature. Philology, philosophy, history were considered honorable sciences. Natural sciences were of an applied nature. Trade, business, and crafts were not rated very highly. The officials looked at the merchants with contempt. Peasants are the “good” people, traders are the “bad” people.

Family: The ideal was the “five generations under one roof” model. A family is a clan of people who are related. The main thing is that from childhood to death the Chinese feel like part of the clan. Outside of the family he is nothing.

Ancestor cult - part of the national religion.

Read the continuation of the topic “Culture of the Ancient East”:

From 1966 to 1976, the country underwent a Cultural Revolution, during which traditional Chinese culture was banned and destroyed. Since the 1980s, the Chinese government abandoned this policy and began to revive traditional culture. Modern Chinese culture is a mixture of traditional culture, communist ideas and post-modern influences associated with globalization processes.

Architecture

Chinese architecture is as old as the entire Chinese civilization. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a significant influence on the building technologies of Vietnam, Korea and Japan. In the 20th century, Western construction technologies spread in China, especially in cities. Traditional Chinese buildings rarely exceed three stories, and the demands of urbanization have resulted in modern Chinese cities having a Western appearance. However, in the suburbs and villages they often still build using traditional technologies.

Traditional Chinese buildings are characterized by bilateral symmetry, which symbolizes balance and equilibrium. Chinese buildings occupy the maximum of the territory allocated for them, the free space is inside the building in the form of courtyards.

Inside the building there are separate buildings connected by covered galleries. The system of patios and covered galleries has a practical value - it protects from the heat. Chinese buildings are characterized by their width, unlike Europeans, who prefer to build upward.

The buildings inside the building are placed hierarchically: the most important ones are located along the central axis, the less important ones are at the edges, the older family members live on the far side, the younger ones and servants live in the front, at the entrance.

The Chinese are characterized by geomancy, or feng shui. In accordance with this set of rules, the building is built with the back to the hill, and the front to the water, there is an obstacle behind the front door, since the Chinese believe that evil travels only in a straight line, talismans and hieroglyphs are hung around the building, attracting happiness, good luck and wealth.

Traditionally built from wood in China, stone buildings have always been rare. Load-bearing walls are also rare; the weight of the roof is usually carried by wooden columns. The number of columns is usually even, it allows you to create odd number compartments, and place the entrance exactly in the center.

Wooden structures with a minimum of load-bearing parts are much more resistant to earthquakes. There are three types of roofs: flat sloping roofs are found on the houses of common people, those with a stepwise changing slope are used for more expensive buildings, and smooth roofs with raised corners are the privilege of temples and palaces, although they are also found on the houses of the rich.

The roof ridge is usually decorated with carved figures made of ceramics or wood, and the roof itself is covered with tiles. Walls and foundations were built from rammed earth or brick, less often - from stone.

Painting and calligraphy

Traditional Chinese painting is called Guohua (national painting). In imperial times there was practically no professional artists, aristocrats and officials were engaged in painting in their leisure time.

Wrote black paint and with a brush made of animal wool on silk or paper. The paintings were scrolls that were hung on the walls or kept rolled up. Often, poems written by the artist and related to the image were written on the painting. The main genre was landscape, which is called Shanshui (mountains and water).

The main thing was not realism, but transmission emotional state from contemplating the landscape. Painting flourished during the Tang Dynasty, and was perfected during the Song Dynasty. Song artists began to paint blurry distant objects to create the effect of perspective, as well as the disappearance of outlines in the fog.

During the Ming Dynasty, narrative paintings came into fashion. With the coming to power of the communists, the genre reigned in painting socialist realism, depicting the life of workers and peasants. In modern China traditional painting coexists with modern Western styles.

Calligraphy (Shufa, laws of writing) is considered in China highest form painting. Calligraphy involves the ability to hold a brush correctly and choose ink and writing material wisely. During calligraphy classes, they try to copy the handwriting of famous artists.

Literature

Chinese literature has a history of more than three thousand years. The first deciphered texts are fortune-telling inscriptions on turtle shells from the Shang Dynasty. Fiction has traditionally been of secondary importance.

The classic literary canon is considered to be the collections of Confucian ethical and philosophical books: the Pentateuch, the Four Books and the Thirteen Books. An excellent knowledge of the Confucian canon was a prerequisite for passing examinations for government positions. Traditional dynastic chronicles are of great importance.

After a new dynasty came to power, starting with the Han, scientists compiled a detailed chronicle of the reign of the previous dynasty. Twenty-four stories are a collection of such chronicles. There is also the Heptateuch - a collection of works on the art of war, the most famous of which is “The Art of War” by Sun Tzu.

During the Ming Dynasty, entertaining novels became popular. An example of Chinese prose are the Four Classic Novels: "The Three Kingdoms", "The Pools", "Journey to the West" and "The Dream of the Red Chamber". In 1917-1923 the New Cultural Movement appeared.

Its writers and poets, in order to be more understandable, began to write in colloquial Chinese, Baihua, instead of Wenyang, or ancient Chinese. The founder of modern Chinese literature is Lu Xun.

Music

IN Ancient China the social status of musicians was lower than that of artists, but the music played important. One of the books of the Confucian canon is Shi Jing - a collection of folk songs. With the communists coming to power, genres such as revolutionary songs, marches and anthems appeared.

The traditional Chinese musical scale consists of five tones, and there are also 7- and 12-tone scales. By Chinese tradition musical instruments are divided according to the material of the sounding element: bamboo, clay, wood, stone, leather, silk, metal.

Theater

Classical Chinese theater is called Xiqu, which combines singing, dancing, stage speech and movement, as well as elements of circus and martial arts. The Xiqu Theater appeared in its rudimentary form during the Tang Dynasty (7th century AD).

Different provinces developed their own variants traditional theater. The most famous of them is the Beijing Opera - Jingjiu. The Xiqu Theater continued to develop and change both in the Republic of China and after the communists came to power.

Cinema

The first film show in China took place in 1898, the first Chinese film was shot in 1905. Until the 1940s, Shanghai remained the main cinematic center of the country, the film industry developed with the help of the United States and experienced strong American influence.

With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the film industry developed rapidly. Before the start of the Cultural Revolution, 603 feature films and 8,342 documentaries. A wide variety of films were filmed to entertain and educate children. animated films. During the Cultural Revolution, cinema was severely restricted, many old films were banned, and few new ones were made.

In the new millennium, Chinese cinema is influenced by the traditions of Hong Kong and Macau, after their annexation to China. Removed a large number of joint paintings. In 2011, China's film market amounted to $2 billion and, ahead of India and the UK, came in third place in the world after the USA and Japan.

Martial arts

Chinese martial arts are not fighting techniques with or without weapons, but a complex of various cultural phenomena. In addition to hand-to-hand and armed combat techniques, Chinese martial arts include various health practices, sports, acrobatics, methods of self-improvement and psychophysical training, elements of philosophy and ritual as a way to harmonize the relationship between man and the world around him.

Chinese martial arts are called Wu Shu, or Kung Fu. The main centers of Wushu development are the Shaolin and Wudangshan monasteries. The battle is fought hand-to-hand, or by one of 18 traditional types weapons.

Kitchen

There are many culinary schools and trends in China. Each province has its own cuisine, almost every city or town has its own specialties. The most famous and influential culinary schools are Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong and Sichuan.

Holidays

There are many holidays and festivals in China, both traditional and modern. The main holiday in China is New Year according to the traditional lunar calendar.

It occurs from January 21 to February 21, depending on the phases of the moon. Chinese New Year is officially celebrated for three days, but in fact it lasts two weeks or more. An important public holiday is the founding day of the People's Republic of China, October 1, which is also celebrated for three days. Since these two holidays merge with weekends, they are actually celebrated for up to seven days, these holidays are called “Golden Weeks”.

Others official holidays are New Year, Qingming Festival, Labor Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival. There are holidays for individuals social groups: Women's Day, Children's, Youth and Military Days. The working day for these groups is reduced by half. Traditional holidays of national minorities are non-working days in national autonomies.

Chinese culture is one of the most interesting and, of course, unique eastern cultures. It belongs to the circle of great river civilizations that arose in ancient times. Start cultural history China dates back to the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. It is to this time that Chinese historiography dates the reign of five legendary emperors, the era of whose rule was perceived as the golden age of wisdom, justice and virtue. The continuity of development of Chinese culture is one of its most important features, inextricably linked with such features of this culture as traditionalism and isolation. The isolation of Chinese culture is based on the Chinese belief in their exclusivity, that their country is the center of the inhabited earth and the entire universe. Therefore, the Chinese called it the Middle Empire. The formation of a single culture was facilitated by the fact that the ancient Chinese inhabited a single plain, an entire geographical area. This led to close communication between the peoples of China. They relatively quickly developed a unified economic structure, which, in turn, predetermined the commonality of the most diverse aspects of life, from the appearance of their homes to the annual rhythm of holidays. The closed nature of the development of ancient Chinese culture, which provided it with stability, self-sufficiency, conservatism, love for clear organization and order, predetermined the exclusive role of traditions, customs, rituals and ceremonies. Depending on their social status, each person was prescribed strictly defined norms of behavior, commonly known as “Chinese ceremonies.” Of all the countries and cultures known to us, it was in China that the system of mandatory and generally accepted norms of behavior was especially developed. There was even a special institution - the Chamber of Ceremonies, which strictly monitored the implementation of rules, rituals and procedures inherited from the past. A person's status in China could change. A commoner in China could even become an emperor, but the norms of behavior characteristic of a certain status never changed. At a very early stage of cultural development in China, all human life began to be commensurate with nature, through the laws of which people tried to comprehend the principles of their existence. Therefore, the Chinese had a special attitude towards nature: along with its deification, Chinese culture, like no other, was characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. You can understand the specifics of Chinese culture only by turning to the picture of the world that has developed in Chinese culture, its main categories, norms and values. One of the main factors explaining the peculiarities of Chinese culture is the tone-isolating language, which creates a completely different (compared to European) semantic space. The meaning of the word in Chinese depends on the tone in which it is pronounced. Therefore, one word can mean completely different things. These words are written using hieroglyphs. The total number of hieroglyphs reaches 80 thousand. Hieroglyphic writing and thinking form the basis of the symbolism of Chinese culture, since it was the hieroglyphic images that became the means of thinking, which brings Chinese thinking closer to the thinking of primitive people. An important feature of Chinese culture is also holism - the idea of ​​the integrity and harmony of the world. The world in the minds of the Chinese is a world of absolute identity of opposites, where the many and the one do not deny each other, and all differences are relative. In every natural phenomenon - be it a flower, an animal or a waterfall, the richness of the whole world shines through.

The most important features of the religious structure of China were laid down in ancient times, starting from the Shang-Yin era. The Yin had a considerable pantheon of gods and spirits, which they revered and to which they made sacrifices, most often bloody, including human ones. But over time, Shandi, the supreme deity and legendary ancestor of the Yin, their totem ancestor, came to the fore more and more clearly among these gods and spirits. Shandi was perceived as the first ancestor who cared about the well-being of his people. The shift in the cult of Shandi's emphasis towards his functions as an ancestor played a huge role in the history of Chinese civilization: it was this that logically led to the weakening of the religious principle and to the strengthening of the rational principle, which manifested itself in the hypertrophy of the cult of ancestors, which then became the basis of the foundations of the religious system of China. The Zhou people had such a religious idea as the veneration of Heaven. Over time, the cult of Heaven in Zhou finally replaced Shandi in the main function of the supreme deity. At the same time, the idea of ​​a direct genetic connection between divine powers and the ruler spread to Heaven: the Zhou Wang began to be considered the son of Heaven, and this title was retained by the ruler of China until the 20th century. Starting from the Zhou era, Heaven, in its main function as the supreme controlling and regulating principle, became the main all-Chinese deity, and the cult of this deity was given not only a sacred-theistic, but also a moral and ethical emphasis. It was believed that the great Heaven punishes the unworthy and rewards the virtuous.

There is also a cult of dead ancestors in China, a cult of the Earth, closely associated with magic and ritual symbolism, with witchcraft and shamanism.

All noted belief systems and cults in ancient China played a huge role in the formation of the main traditional Chinese civilization: not mysticism and metaphysical abstractions, but strict rationalism and concrete state benefit; not the emotional intensity of passions and the personal connection of the individual with the deity, but reason and moderation, the rejection of the personal in favor of the social; not the clergy, directing the emotions of believers in a direction that exalts God and enhances the significance of religion, but priest-officials performing their administrative functions, part of which were regular religious functions. All these specific features that developed in the Yin-Zhou Chinese system of values ​​over the millennium preceding the era of Confucius prepared the country for the perception of those principles and norms of life that forever went down in history under the name of Confucianism. Confucius (Kunzi, 551-479 BC) was born and lived in an era of great socialist and political upheaval, when Zhou China was in a state of severe internal crisis. The highly moral Jun Tzu, constructed by the philosopher as a model, a standard to follow, should have had two of the most important virtues in his mind: humanity and a sense of duty. Confucius also developed a number of other concepts, including loyalty and sincerity (zheng), decency and observance of ceremonies and rituals (li). Following all these principles will be the duty of the noble Junzi. The “noble man” of Confucius is a speculative social ideal, an edifying set of virtues. Confucius formulated the foundations of the social ideal that he would like to see in the Celestial Empire: “Let the father be a father, the son a son, the sovereign a sovereign, an official an official,” that is, let everything in this world of chaos and confusion fall into place, everyone will be know your rights and responsibilities and do what you are supposed to do. And society should consist of those who think and govern - the top, and those who work and obey - the bottom. Confucius and the second founder of Confucianism, Mencius (372 - 289 BC), considered such a social order to be eternal and unchanging, coming from the sages of legendary antiquity. One of the important foundations of social order, according to Confucius, was strict obedience to elders. Any elder, be it a father, an official, or finally a sovereign, is an unquestioning authority for a younger, subordinate, subject. Blind obedience to his will, word, desire is an elementary norm for juniors and subordinates, both within the state as a whole and within the ranks of a clan, corporation or family. In the conditions of the Zhanguo era (5th - 3rd centuries BC), when various philosophical schools competed fiercely in China, Confucianism was in first place in its significance and influence. But, despite this, the methods of governing the country proposed by the Confucians did not receive recognition at that time. This was prevented by the rivals of the Confucians - the Legists. The teaching of legalists - legalists - differed sharply from Confucianism. The legalist doctrine was based on the unconditional primacy of written law. The strength and authority of which must rest on cane discipline and cruel punishments. According to legalist canons, laws are developed by sages - reformers, issued by the sovereign, and put into practice by specially selected officials and ministers, relying on a powerful administrative and bureaucratic apparatus. In the teachings of the legalists, who hardly even appealed to Heaven, rationalism was taken to its extreme form, sometimes turning into outright cynicism, which can be easily seen in the activities of a number of legalists-reformers in various kingdoms of Zhou China in the 7th – 4th centuries. BC. But it was not rationalism or the attitude towards Heaven that was fundamental in the opposition of legalism to Confucianism. What was more important was that Confucianism relied on high morality and other traditions, while Legalism placed above all else the law, which was based on strict punishments and demanded absolute obedience of a deliberately stupid people. Confucianism focused on the past, and Legalism openly challenged this past, offering extreme forms of authoritarian despotism as an alternative. Somewhat later than Confucianism, a completely different branch of Chinese culture appeared, a completely new teaching about life, as well as a way of life - Taoism. The second most influential doctrine in China was the philosophical doctrine of the Great Absolute, Taoism, which took shape around the 4th century. BC e. The Chinese word "dao" has multiple meanings; it means “the path”, “the world basis of being”, “the fundamental principle of all being”. The main canon of Taoism, the Tao De Ching, is attributed to the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu, a legendary contemporary of Confucius, whose name translated means “wise old man.” There is reason to believe that this is not a real person, but a mythical one, created later by the Taoists themselves.

According to the concept of Taoism, there is no absolute good and absolute evil, there is no absolute truth and absolute lie - all concepts and values ​​are relative. Everything in the world is subject to the law naturally chosen by heaven, in which is hidden infinite variety and at the same time order. A person must strive to interact with a thing or the world as a whole, therefore synthesis is preferable to analysis. A craftsman who processes wood or stone is closer to the truth than a thinker engaged in fruitless analysis. Analysis is fruitless because of its infinity.

Taoism instructed a person to directly comprehend any whole, be it an object, an event, a natural phenomenon or the world as a whole. He taught to strive for peace of mind and an intellectual understanding of all wisdom as some kind of integrity. To achieve such a position, it is useful to abstract from all connections with society. The most beneficial thing is to think alone. The main idea of ​​Lao Tzu's practical philosophy or ethics is the principle of non-doing, inaction. Any desire to do something, change anything in nature or in people’s lives is condemned. The cardinal virtue is abstinence; this is the beginning of moral improvement.

The ideals of Taoism inspired Chinese poets and artists to depict nature, and many Chinese thinkers seeking to understand the world were encouraged to leave society and live in solitude in the lap of nature. In ruling circles, Taoism, of course, could not evoke such enthusiasm.

At the same time, Buddhism penetrated into China, which at the beginning, thanks to ascetic practice and the absence of sacrifices, looked like a type of Taoism. But already in the 4th century, Buddhism was gaining more and more popularity and began to influence traditional Chinese culture. Buddhism existed in China for almost two millennia, changing greatly as it adapted to Chinese civilization. Based on a synthesis of ideas and concepts drawn from philosophical depths Buddhism, with traditional Chinese thought, with Confucian pragmatism, one of the most profound and interesting, intellectually rich and still very attractive currents of world religious thought arose in China - Chan Buddhism (Japanese Zen).

It was the Buddhist idea of ​​the harmonious unity of man and nature that became not only the soul chinese art, but also a way of understanding existence. Truth and Buddha are everywhere and in everything. In the silence of the mountains, in the murmur of a stream, in the radiance of the sun. This was reflected in painting, in the famous Chinese scrolls (not on canvas, but on silk). And their subjects were dominated by images of mountains, birds, flowers, herbs and insects. It should be noted that every element of Chinese painting is symbolic: the pine tree is a symbol of longevity, bamboo is a symbol of perseverance and courage, the stork is a symbol of loneliness and holiness, the snake is the most beautiful and the most intelligent. Hieroglyphs play a special role in Chinese fine arts. Not only in writing and painting, but also in architecture.

Buddhism contributed to the spread of circular sculpture. Chinese Buddhist monks invented the art of woodblock printing, i.e. book printing using matrices. Under the influence of Buddhism, the aristocratization of art took place, and greater sophistication and subjective beginnings emerged. Become famous names artists, around 500 the first treatise on painting (Xie He) was written, various types of portraits appeared.

The literature of that time was characterized by pessimism and motives of spiritual loneliness, and lyrical poetry flourished. Buddhist origins are visible in landscape and philosophical lyrics.

Buddhist and Indo-Buddhist philosophy and mythology had a significant influence on the Chinese people and their culture. Much of this philosophy and mythology, from the practice of gymnastic yoga to the ideas of hell and heaven, was adopted in China. Thus, it can be assumed that classical Chinese culture was a fusion of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. These movements practically did not compete with each other, but coexisted in the spiritual life of the Chinese, occupying their own niches. And since they are not only philosophical, but also religious movements, Chinese culture is characterized by religious syncretism and a functional approach to religion, the choice of which is determined by a specific life situation. The architecture and art of Ancient China reached its peak in the 3rd century. BC e. - III century n. e. Scattered small kingdoms united into a powerful power. After many years of wars, a period of respite came and a single vast empire was created. The creation of the most grandiose monuments of ancient Chinese architecture also corresponds to this time of the country’s unification. The largest building in China at the end of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. - The Great Wall of China, reaching a height of 10 m and a width of 5-8 m, it served both as a harsh adobe fortress with many signal towers, protecting against attacks by nomadic tribes, and as a road stretching along the ledges of impassable mountain ranges. At the early stage of construction, the length of the Great Wall of China reached 750 km, and later exceeded 3000 kilometers. Cities during this period were built as fortresses, surrounded by walls and surrounded by moats with several gates and watchtowers. They had a rectangular layout, straight highways on which palace complexes were located. Chronicles report that the most famous palace complexes of that time were the Efangong Palace in Xianyang (more than 10 km long along the Weihe River) and the Weiangong Palace in Chang'an (11 km long along the perimeter). consisting of 43 buildings. A special phenomenon in ancient Chinese architecture were the underground stone palaces of the nobility - their funeral crypts. Since the burial ritual became one of the most important rites, the deceased, even after death, was surrounded by the same luxury, the same honors and the same objects that protected him as during life. The tombs consisted of entire complexes of underground rooms, oriented to the cardinal directions, and taking into account the favorable location of the winds and celestial bodies. Leading to the underground structures was an above-ground “alley of spirits” - the guardians of the grave, framed on both sides by statues of winged lions and stone pylons marking the entrance to the crypt. Often the complex also included small above-ground sanctuaries - tsitans. Stone doors led inside the burial, on which were depicted four guardians of the cardinal directions: a tiger - west, a phoenix - south, a dragon - east, a turtle - north. Ancient era for development artistic culture China and all of East Asia had the same significance as the Greco-Roman world for Europe. The foundations were laid in the ancient Chinese era cultural traditions, which can be clearly traced throughout the centuries-old history of China right up to the New and Contemporary times.

The history of the Celestial Empire goes back thousands of years, so it is no wonder that over the entire existence of this country an amazing culture has formed, which is so different from the development paths of other states. The fact that China was isolated for a long time, practically not intersecting with Western countries and not adopting them, played a role in creating this uniqueness. cultural values. In addition, the more active inculcation of communist ideology also could not but affect the development of the civilization of the Middle Kingdom. So, what is Chinese culture?

Architecture of the Celestial Empire: pagodas and palaces made of wood

Chinese buildings are difficult to confuse with any others. Such characteristic features as bilateral symmetry, the presence of courtyards, breadth, adherence to a strict hierarchy in the arrangement of rooms, as well as decorative decoration of walls and roofs - all this makes the architecture of China recognizable and inimitable.

Despite the fact that in Lately In the Celestial Empire, buildings of a Western type are being actively erected; traditional Chinese architecture still does not lose its relevance. Proof of this is the numerous temples, pagodas and palaces that coexist with high-rise buildings made of concrete and glass.

As we have already said, Chinese buildings necessarily have bilateral symmetry - it should symbolize harmony, equilibrium and balance. It is interesting that, unlike Western houses, Chinese buildings are extended not upward, but in width. This makes it possible to use the entire area allocated for construction by placing green courtyards, separate buildings and covered passage galleries inside the buildings. Their location is usually subject to a strict hierarchy - the most significant buildings are located along the central axis, while the less significant ones are located on the edge.

Compliance with Feng Shui requirements is another characteristic feature Chinese buildings. So, most of them are located with the front part towards the water, and the back part towards the hills.

As for the material of traditional buildings, wood has always been held in special esteem - almost all buildings were built from it, while stone houses were very rare.

The roofs of Chinese buildings attract attention - most of them have a stepped structure with a varying level of inclination. Temples and palaces usually have smooth roofs with slightly raised corners, which are covered with tiles and decorated with ceramic or wooden figures.

Chinese paintings

IN traditional culture China important place is given to painting, which amazes any Westerner with its subtle organization and complex emotional component. This type of art was an important component of the culture of ancient and medieval China, and does not lose its relevance to this day, organically intertwined with modern Western fine art without losing its originality.

It is interesting that during the imperial period there were practically no professional painters here - officials and the aristocracy were engaged in painting. The greatest flourishing Chinese painting reached its peak during the Tang and Song dynasties.

A distinctive feature of Chinese artistic culture is that the paintings are scrolls made on silk, paper or bamboo plates that were hung on the wall. Many of them were supplemented by several poetic lines that reflected internal state the author of the picture.

The most common motifs in Chinese painting are mountain and river landscapes, images of flowers and bamboo, birds and animals, as well as portraiture. Along with full-color images, the use of ink played an important role.

Graphics and calligraphy are considered inseparable from painting in China. The art of beautiful writing of hieroglyphs is held in high esteem here.

Literary heritage

The history of Chinese literature goes back to ancient times - the first texts found by archaeologists date back to the Shang Dynasty. The leading place in the culture of the Celestial Empire is traditionally occupied by historiography and ethical and philosophical treatises, while fiction is given minor role. Collections of Confucian ideas embodied in the Thirteen Books, Pentateuch and Four Books are considered classics. Dynasty chronicles are also recognized as fundamental in the formation of Chinese literature.

One cannot ignore Chinese poetry, which is rightfully considered one of the most ancient in the world.. Until the twentieth century, it did not experience Western influence, which allowed the formation of four unique directions - fu, chi, shi and qu.

Entertaining novels are a genre of literature that became especially popular during the Ming Dynasty. The most significant of them are “The Three Kingdoms”, “Journey to the West” and “The Ponds”.

Music

Like other branches of Chinese artistic culture, the history of music in the Middle Kingdom goes back several thousand years. For example, The bamboo flute is considered one of the most ancient instruments in the world.. It’s easy to guess that until the twentieth century, Chinese music had virtually no overlap with Western music. musical tradition, however, was closely intertwined with the Middle East, Central and South Asia.

Everything was devoted to music great attention. According to Confucianism, this branch of culture was cosmological in nature, and was also closely related to society and politics. According to followers of Taoism, music was supposed to act as a consequence of a person’s psycho-emotional reactions and contribute to his connection with the outside world. Well, Chinese Buddhists paid attention to the mystical basis of music, which was supposed to contribute to a person’s comprehension of existence.

Traditional Chinese music is usually performed solo or in small ensembles. Tools are made from bamboo, wood, metal, silk, gourd, stone and clay.

Embroidery

This kind applied arts occupies an important place in cultural heritage China and dates back more than one thousand years. The earliest examples of embroidery found by archaeologists date back to the Zhou Dynasty - these were items of ritual clothing.

The rapid development of embroidery occurred during the Han Dynasty. It was during this period that the formation of four main directions of this type of decorative and applied art took place - Xiang, Yue, Shu and Su.

Chinese embroidery is distinguished by its extraordinary delicacy and fineness of work and is always done with silk threads. Interestingly, it was originally carried out by men, not women.

Fabric painting: the art of batik in China

In the cultural heritage of the Celestial Empire, an important place is occupied by this type of applied art, such as drawings made on fabric by hand. This direction has long history, since it is believed that already during the Qin and Han dynasties the art of batik took place. However, it was only during the Tang Dynasty that batik became widespread. Decorated fabrics were exported at this time to European countries along the Great Silk Road.

Chinese cuisine

For the Chinese, gastronomy has a special meaning: eating on the go or combining food with watching TV is considered unacceptable. Chinese cuisine is very different and depends on the area.

• Cantonese cuisine. It is famous for its light snacks and meat dishes. Most types of local meat are eaten here, except goat and lamb. The most famous dish is dimsan, that is, a special type of small snack.
• Sichuan cuisine— spiciness and pungency prevail, which are achieved through the use of local varieties of pepper, nuts, ginseng, sesame, garlic, and so on.
• Anhui cuisine famous for its bamboo and mushroom dish. It contains a lot of vegetables and herbs.
• Shandong cuisine. Seafood and grains rule the roost here.
• Fujian closely intertwined with Japanese. A special place in preparing dishes here is occupied by the method of cutting ingredients.
• Jiangsu cuisine glorified far beyond the borders of China. It is distinguished by particular care in the selection of ingredients, due to which the dishes are very tender.
• Hunan- famous for the active use of smoked meats, as well as dried products. The dishes are mostly spicy.
• Zhejiang cuisine represented by delicate dishes with moderate aromas.

As for the main ingredients, the most important place is occupied by rice, which is consumed boiled and fried. Noodles, flatbreads and other dishes are also prepared from this grain. Soy consumption also plays an important role. It is used to make traditional tofu cheese, as well as soy milk, paste, oil and vinegar. The Chinese do not ignore vegetables and herbs - Chinese cabbage, celery, bitter cucumber, bean sprouts, mustard leaves and watercress occupy their niche in Chinese cuisine. As for meat, almost all types of meat are eaten. Important role seasonings are also given, including ginger, cloves, Sesame oil, dill, star anise.

The culture of Ancient China has largely survived to this day. By studying written sources of those times, one can trace the development of the country itself, the emergence of science, and the features of mythology and religion.

Architecture

Since ancient times, the Chinese have been very sensitive to their territory. Therefore, massive brick walls and towers were erected along the entire perimeter, making it possible to control borders and warn in advance about raids by warring peoples. One of such fortifications can be called the Great Wall of China.

architecture of ancient China photo

Already in the first millennium BC, the Chinese knew how to build two and three-story buildings. The main materials for this were brick and clay. The roofs were tiled. As a sign of respect for tradition, metal and wooden plaques with symbols of wealth, health and prosperity were often attached to them.

Chinese wall photo

Sculpture

The sculpture of that time is closely related to religious beliefs. Totems and miniatures were carved, bringing happiness and good luck. They were placed in the graves of the dead, placed in houses, and given as gifts for holidays. Many Buddha figurines, individual or carved into rocks and trees, were also found.

Dishes

Ceramic products were made from red or yellow clay. They were called Yangshao. Wine and oil were stored in these vessels, and food was also prepared in them. These are all kinds of jugs, bowls, vases and bowls. At first they sculpted by hand, later they began to use a potter's wheel. Ready-made household items were painted with patterns and animal figures.

Ancient Chinese dishes photo

They made dishes from bronze - vessels that were intended for sacrifice to the spirits of nature. In the early 600s, porcelain dishes were invented. The wealth of porcelain stone deposits contributed to the development of the craft. These were the world's first porcelain products.

Painting

Painting is considered the highest achievement of the art of Ancient China. All painting, like other branches of art, is permeated with the harmony of nature, observation and contemplation. Love and reverence for nature is a key value of the ancient Chinese. Each element of nature, animal or plant has its own symbolic meaning, according to which the pictures were painted.

painting of ancient China photo

They painted on scrolls, in books, on fabric (silk) and pottery. Among all kinds of Chinese paintings, painted scrolls are the most valuable. Mineral paints or paints of plant origin were used.

Writing

Writing originated in these parts two thousand years BC. Chinese writing is considered amazing in its harmony, primarily in China itself. It contains simplicity of lines, ease of execution, and depth of content.

writing of ancient China photo

It was believed that by handwriting and the execution of hieroglyphs one could understand and trace human consciousness, his mental balance, feelings, and emotions.

Typography

In 105 AD e. paper was invented. On which one could write books or print. True, the last method has not yet been mastered. At the same time, the most famous and important texts already carved on stone tablets. Around the 4th century AD, copying first appeared, by transferring onto paper, text carved on stone. This made it possible to reproduce the necessary books that had great importance for China.

The science

Ancient China was one of the most enlightened places on the planet. People studied various sciences, but the root cause of all this was the simplest human needs. Mathematics and geometry made it possible to make calculations and build more accurate and safer buildings.

science of ancient China photo

The Chinese were also familiar with the peculiarities of time and the calendar system - astronomy. They could monitor the planets and stars, calculate the calendar cycles of sowing and harvesting. A lunar calendar was developed and created.

After the beginning of the expansion of Ancient China and the conquest of neighboring territories, the need arose to describe the lands, their landscape, features, capabilities, and usefulness for the country. This led to the development of geography and its rapid study, as well as agronomy and agriculture.

numbers of ancient China photo

During the “warring states” period, all kinds of crafts developed: weaving, carpentry, pottery, jewelry. Even in the modern world, Chinese medicine, which represents man as a small universe with energy flowing through him, attracts special attention even in the modern world. When this energy goes out, a person dies, when a person loses his inner balance, he gets sick.

Religion

In China, as in other countries, the original religions were fetishism, the cult of ancestors, and totemism, on the basis of which other beliefs later began to emerge. People believed in and worshiped various gods of the moon, sun, mountains, earth and water for the benefit of harvest, rain, fortitude, solar heat, etc.

religion of ancient China photo

One of the first Chinese views in the 4th-5th centuries BC. e. was the teaching of Confucius, which influenced not only daily life Chinese, but also subsequent beliefs. It was a kind of root from which the branches of new, modern religions grew. Around the same time as Confucianism, the ideology of Lao Tzu appeared, which served as the basis for the emergence of Taoism. Buddhism also emerged later.

Data

• It was the Chinese who invented the compass.
• The development of Chinese writing is similar to Egyptian. Initially, these were pictures, which over time became more and more simplified, becoming more like signs than drawings.
• Products made from bronze, fabrics, and jewelry stones were very beautiful and were revered not only in the country, but also abroad.
• Thanks to political influence, great knowledge and a favorable location, Ancient China had a strong political and cultural influence to neighboring countries.
• Music has been one of the most famous and popular forms of entertainment. Back in the second millennium BC, the Chinese already knew about 20 musical instruments. The Chinese not only loved music, but were also good dancers.
• In Ancient China, theatrical performances were also known, which originate from cultic acts.