Finite brain. Furrows and convolutions of the medial surface

Medial surfaces cerebral hemispheres can be fully studied on brain preparations only after dissection along the midline of the corpus callosum and trunk (Fig. 7.12, B).

The limbic lobe includes superficial structures, collectively called vaulted gyrus (g. fornicatus). They are located around the corpus callosum, separated from its anterior and superior parts (beak, genu and splenium) by the corpus callosum groove and from its lower end by the hippocampal sulcus.

The vaulted gyrus itself consists of the cingulate gyrus and connected to it posteriorly by means of a narrow transitional gyrus or nepeneck (isthmus) parahippocampal gyrus.

The initial part of the cingulate cortex corresponds to password factor area (area parolfactoria Broca).

In addition, the cingulate gyrus has connections with adjacent areas medial surface frontal and parietal lobes thanks to short transitional gyri that interrupt its outer border - the cingulate sulcus. The parahippocampal gyrus, which already lies on the basal surface of the hemisphere, also has a transition to the lingual gyrus of the occipital lobe.

Several small convolutions stand out in the outer wall of the sulcus of the corpus callosum. Under the beak of the corpus callosum there is a short vertical subcallosal or paraterminal gyrus (subcallosus). It is a continuation of the diagonal gyrus of the lower surface of the hemisphere and is separated from the password-factor area located in front by a small password factor groove (s. parolfactorius).

At the lower part of the genu corpus callosum it becomes supracallosal gyrus (g. supracallosus). This gyrus consists of a thin layer of cortical substance that forms the gray coating (induseum griseum) corpus callosum. Along its edges there are longitudinal thickenings - medial And lateral stripe (striae longitudinales medialis et lateralis).

Essentially, the gray covering of the corpus callosum extends from the end of the medial olfactory strip to the hippocampus and is a rudiment of the latter. Posteriorly at the splenium of the corpus callosum, the supracallosal gyrus has a transition to the dentate ligament or fascia (fascia dentatus), which is an uneven marginal bend of the medial wall of the hemisphere, lying in the bottom of the hippocampal sulcus.

Anteriorly, the dentate ligament passes into the dentate gyrus, which is almost completely surrounded by the strongly expanding cortex of the inferior wall of the hippocampal sulcus. In addition, invagination of the cortex occurs in the depths of the sulcus itself and, as a result, a curved elongated protrusion is formed in the bottom of the lower horn of the lateral ventricle, called sea skate or hippocampus (hippocampus). The characteristic pattern of cross sections through this area has led to the name often applied to it - horn of ammon (hornu Ammonis).

In the frontal lobe, the entire peripheral part up to the cingulate sulcus is occupied by the continuation of the superior frontal gyrus to the medial surface. In the region of the frontal pole, they enter the medial edge of this gyrus supraorbital And frontomarginal sulcus (ss. supraorbitalis et fronto- marginalis), and below is located rostral sulcus (s. rostralis).

In most cases, the cingulate groove is not continuous, but is divided into front - detailed(pars subfrontalis) And rear – regional(pars marginalis) parts. The edge part gives off as it goes up circumcentral branch (ramus paracentralis), crossing the upper edge of the hemisphere several centimeters in front of the central sulcus. She ends up splitting apart to the marginal branch (ramus marginalis), which also reaches the upper edge of the hemisphere, and located behind subparietal branch (ramus subparietalis), which is often independent.

In the parietal lobe, the quadrangular gyrus, located between the pericentral and marginal branches, is called pericentral lobule (lobulus paracentralis Betzi). Its upper edge is intersected by the central sulcus and, thus, it is a continuation of the anterior and posterior central gyri onto the medial surface. Behind her is located precuneus gyrus (g. precuneus), limited by the marginal branch of the cingulate sulcus, as well as by the parieto-occipital sulcus extending onto the medial surface.

Rice. 7.14. Representation of thalamic nuclei in the cortex on the superolateral (A) and medial (B) surfaces:

1 – medial dorsal; 2– anterior ventral; 3– ventrolateral; 4– ventral posterolateral; 5– medial geniculate; 6– dorsal and lateral posterior; 7– pillow; 8– lateral geniculate; 9– anterior nucleus

The precuneus divides precuneus groove (s. precuneus), rising from below from the subparietal branch of the cingulate sulcus to the anterior and posterior parts, which merge along the edge of the hemisphere with the superior parietal lobule.

Behind the precuneus between the parieto-occipital sulcus and the deep calcarine groove (s. calcarinus) a triangular shape is formed sphenoid gyrus (g. cunei). On the surface of the sphenoid gyrus there are usually parallel to the calcarine sulcus. top And inferior sagittal grooves (ss. sagittales cunei superior et inferior). They share a wedge to the top, middle And lower sagittal convolutions(gg. sagittales cunei superior, medius et inferior). TO occipital lobe also includes lying between the calcarine and collateral grooves reed gyrus (g. lingualis), which connects through the transitional gyrus with the parahippocampal gyrus located in front.

It is worth noting two more formations observed on sagittal sections of the brain - end plate (lamina terminalis) And transparent partition (septum pellucidum). The first is a narrow, inverted remnant of the anterior end of the embryonic telencephalon, forming the anterior wall of the third ventricle, and the second is located between the anterior parts of the corpus callosum and the brainstem and is a thin-walled structure constituting the upper part of the medial wall of the lateral ventricle. The transparent septa of both hemispheres are separated narrow closed cavity (cavum septi pellucidi), which is limited by the junction of the septa with the corpus callosum above and in front and with the body of the fornix below.

^ Cerebral cortex

Ancient, old and interstitial crustal formations

Unlike neocortex (peosortex), making up most of the human brain cloak, ancient (paleocortex) And old (archicortex) its components are presented only in separate areas medial and basal surfaces of the hemispheres. These divisions appear earlier in the phylogeny of vertebrates and are more primitive in their internal structure. Archi- and paleocortex, together with adjacent transitional formations interstitial cortex (mesocortex), do not have a six-layer structure, which necessarily appears at a certain stage of ontogenesis in the neocortex. This allows us to classify the neocortex as a homogenetic cortex, and all its other sections as heterogenetic.

The ancient cortex is weakly isolated from the underlying subcortical formations. It includes the lateral olfactory gyrus, also called the preperiform area, the anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus, which, together with the uncus and the underlying amygdala complex, is considered the periform area, and, finally, the medial olfactory area, which includes the olfactory tubercle, diagonal gyrus, subcallosal gyrus, password factor zone, as well as a transparent partition (Fig. 7.12 and 7.13).

The structure of the paleocortex is an accumulation of numerous cellular islands that do not have a clearly defined division into separate layers. The main afferents approach them through the outer zonule.

Areas surrounding the ancient crust at the transition to the new crust (peripaleocortex) include 3 layers. The outer layer is formed by islet cells, and the other two contain polymorphic neurons separated by bundles of fibers.

The main structures of the old cortex are the hippocampus and the dentate gyrus. The hippocampus (seahorse) is a section screwed into the cavity of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle in the wall and bottom of the deep hippocampal sulcus. The dentate gyrus is the outermost structure of the brain cape, which is fused with the hippocampus and wraps over it (Figs. 7.13 and 7.15).

Rice. 7.15. Schemes of the neural organization of the hippocampus (A) and the area of ​​the neocortex (B):

A: 1– hippocampus; 2– fringe; 3– alveus; 4– layer of pyramidal cells; 5– radial layer; 6– molecular layer; 7– layer of polymorphic cells; 8– subiculum; 9– entorhinal cortex; 10– molecular, granular and polymorphic layers of the dentate gyrus; eleven– vault fibers; 12– af-ferents from the subiculum; 13– afferents from the septum pellucidum; 14– cortical entorhinal afferents; B: 1– horizontal cell; 2 – granule cell; 3– pyramidal cell; 4– stellate cell; 5– spindle cell;I – VI – layers of bark

In the hippocampus and dentate gyrus, two cell layers are clearly distinguished. Outer hippocampal layer (stratum pyramidum) formed by fairly large pyramidal neurons. Homologous to him granular layer (stratum granulosum) dentate gyrus. The inner cell layer of Ammon's horn is formed semimorphic neurons (stratum polymorpha) (Fig. 17.15, A).

The outside of the hippocampus is covered white matter(alveus), strongly protruding into the cavity of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle, and including the axons of the pyramidal cells of the hippocampus. Passing then to the medial side of the dentate fascia, these myelinated fibers form fringe (fimbria). Then they move into the fornix, heading under the corpus callosum, partly to the nuclei of the septum pellucidum, and the bulk to the mamillary body and partly to other parts of the hypothalamus on the same side. Some fibers end in the opposite hippocampus, passing through the commissure of the fornix.

The apical dendrites of hippocampal cells extend outward without branching, forming special radialcloy (stratum radiatum). Then they branch intensively to form molecularcloya (stratum moleculare), which merges with zonal molecular layer (stratum zonale) dentate gyrus. Thus, in the dentate gyrus there are only 3, and in the hippocampus - up to 5 layers.

The main part of the afferent endings in the hippocampus is located on thin dendritic branches, densely covered with spines. Only a very small number of synapses contact the pyramidal cell bodies. The basal dendrites of the hippocampal pyramids are oriented in the direction opposite to the apical dendrites. The bodies of these neurons are initially located in one row, but gradually, as they move to the mesocortex, their layer becomes wider. In accordance with the cytoarchitectonic differences in the turn that the hippocampus makes, five fields are distinguished (H 5 - H 1). Last field(H 1) borders the periarchicortex - the intermediate region between the old and new cortex. Here there is an overlap of elements characteristic of the neocortex and hippocampus with a gradual increase in the outer zone of neocortical structures with distance from the hippocampus. In accordance with the cytoarchitectonic features, the periarchicortical region is divided into a number of fields. The area of ​​the transitional cortex closest to the hippocampus is subiculum (subiculum) located in the hippocampal gyrus. It is characterized by a wide zonal layer, indistinctly separated from diffusely located cells of medium size, forming a wide cortical plate (Fig. 7.15, A).

In field H 1 and especially H 2 of the hippocampus, the cortical plate is much narrower and has a denser arrangement of cells than in the subiculum. In the H 3 – H 5 field, the cell plate becomes increasingly rarefied.

The cortical structures characteristic of the hippocampus and dentate fascia are gradually reduced along the crus of the fornix upward and in this form are present in the gray integument of the corpus callosum. This intermediate structure between the old and ancient cortex includes a layer of small pyramidal cells that form in the lateral areas of the gray integument from 5–6 rows in the posterior part to 1–2 rows in the anterior and middle parts.

The dentate fascia is adjacent to the zonal layer of the subiculum and the fields of the horn of Ammon. It is composed of a compact small-cell cortical plate. In the dentate gyrus the main cell layer (stratum granulare) consists of densely arranged oval and multipolar small granular neurons. In the lower inner layer, the concentration of polymorphic cells sharply decreases and they acquire a diffuse distribution.

The dendrites of granular and polymorphic cells are directed to the hippocampal pyramids, and their axons approach in the form of mossy fibers to the dendrites of the cells of the pyramidal layer of the hippocampus. The old cortex is separated from the neocortex by transition zones, including the presubicular and entorhinal areas. The cortical plate of these areas is divided into outer, middle and inner layers, and in the first two light layers are clearly visible, and the latter passes into the cortical plate of the archicortex. A particularly complex layering is observed in the entorhinal region, which is limited from the outside by the posterior rhinal sulcus and from the inside slightly does not reach the hippocampal sulcus.

The presubicular area occupies the upper part of the outer wall of the hippocampal sulcus, the isthmus, the upper wall of the sulcus of the corpus callosum and the password factor field.

The preperiform region is formed by a primitively constructed cortical plate, characterized by a wide zonal layer. The part of the periform region extending onto the free surface is represented by a wider cortical plate, consisting of medium-, large- and small-cellular zones. In the olfactory tubercle, the zonal layer is poorly expressed and its cortical plate is distinguished by a dense distribution of small cells.

The transparent septum in the upper part contains only a zonal layer and is practically devoid of a cortical plate, while in its basal part there is a sparse cluster of small polymorphic cells (pisleus septi).

Olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius) can be divided into five layers: glomerular (stratum glomerulosum), outer fibrous (stratum fibrosum externum), molecular (stratum moleculare), mitral cell layer (stratum neurocitorum mitralium) And internal granular (stratum granulosum internum).

The amygdala complex, located in the ventral part of the temporal lobe, can be divided into two morphologically and functionally different nuclei - the corticomedial and basolateral. A cytoarchitectonic study reveals the presence of large-cell, medium-cell and small-cell areas.

Amygdalar cells receive afferents from the orbital part of the frontal lobe, periform cortex, hypothalamus, and thalamus. The main efferent systems of the amygdala are the stria terminalis and the ventral amygdala.

Efferent fibers reach the amygdala complex of the opposite side through the anterior commissure. The other part of the fibers is directed into a transparent partition. The corticomedial and basolateral nuclei are interconnected and send fibers to the hypothalamus, to the preoptic area and the infundibulum. Some axons of the cells of the amygdala complex terminate in the caudate nucleus.

The structures of the tonsils play a significant role in the integration of instinctive eating and defensive behavior. Removing or damaging them causes a violation emotional reactions and inability to correctly assess the significance of positive and negative environmental factors.

Often the structures of the old and ancient crust as a whole are attributed to olfactory ( or visceral) brain (rhinencephalon). Indeed, its anterior components, including the olfactory tubercle and the gyrus recta, are the primary receptive zones of the olfactory analyzer in the cerebral cortex. In addition, it includes limbic components that are not directly related to the perception of odor stimuli, although they are closely connected with the olfactory analyzer and, at the same time, receive afferents from other sensory systems. These are the medial olfactory area, the gray layer of the corpus callosum, and the hippocampus. Limbic structures, in interaction with diencephalic formations, take part in the regulation of a number of autonomic and somatosensory reactions, and also perform some functions necessary for the implementation of innate reflexes and emotional behavior. Thanks to connections with the reticular formation of the brainstem, the complex nature of the descending and ascending influences of the olfactory brain is ensured. Under experimental conditions, its stimulation has an inhibitory effect on brain stem mechanisms associated with the expression of emotions (anger, rage, etc.). This occurs primarily by suppressing sympathetic effects emanating from the posterior hypothalamus. On the other hand, with damage to the anterior limbic and posterior orbital areas, motor restlessness and hyperactivity occur. Removal of the anterior parts of the hippocampus and adjacent areas of the cortex, as well as the amygdala complex in animals leads to the appearance of signs of hypersexuality and hyperphagia with the loss of emotional manifestations of fear. Destruction of the anterior areas of the hippocampus and amygdala complex, as shown by observations in cats and monkeys, is accompanied by an increase in reactions of anger and rage.

These structures also take part in the regulation of emotional manifestations of eating behavior.

The hippocampus has a significant influence on the pituitary-adrenal system.

Hippocampal neurons are particularly sensitive to many infectious and toxic agents. Degenerative changes leading to a decrease in the number of neurons in it are a common occurrence in epilepsy, neurosyphilis, carbon monoxide poisoning, and mechanical stress.

Apparently, the hippocampus receives part of the olfactory signals from the neurons of the gyrus rectus and the unchin through interneurons. Together with other structures of the old cortex, it participates with its fibers in the formation of such conductive pathways as the fornix, medullary and terminal stripes, as well as the medial bundle forebrain. The fornix, along with part of the axons of hippocampal cells that go to the medial olfactory area, also contains numerous fibers going in the opposite direction. Connections between the hippocampus and the subiculum, presubiculum, and entorhinal cortex are also bidirectional.

In addition to the fibers ending in the mamillary bodies, the hippocampus forms connections with other hypothalamic zones, as well as with some nuclei of the thalamus and tegmentum of the midbrain.

The influence of the hippocampus and other structures of the old and ancient cortex on the functions of the neocortex can be achieved both through direct connections and indirectly, through the reticular formation of the brainstem.

In general, the limbic system is characterized by the presence of closed polysynaptic circuits. For example, one of these systems provides conduction from the hippocampus through the mammillary nuclei to the anterior nucleus of the thalamus, then to the cingulate cortex and further to the subiculum, from which impulses again enter the hippocampus (Figs. 7.13 and 7.15).

Thanks to such circular paths, the prerequisites are created for the circulation necessary for the processes of imprinting information.

In humans, with some mental illness, accompanied by impaired short-term memory, degenerative changes are noted in the hippocampus. Thus, a characteristic symptom of Korsakov's amnesia is the loss of the ability to remember events that have just happened, although the long past remains in memory.

The participation of the hippocampus in the mechanisms of short-term memory and in learning processes is ensured due to extensive afferentation coming from various systems through the dentate fascia.

After removal of the hippocampus or section of the dentate fascia, the development of delayed or delayed conditioned reflexes becomes especially difficult.

^ Neurocytoarchitecture of the neocortex

All areas of the new cortex are built according to a single principle, although its individual layers differ in width, density of arrangement of cellular elements, their shape and size. The initial type is a six-layer cortex (homotypic), and changes in the direction of increasing or decreasing the number of layers (heterotypic cortex) can occur secondarily, during development.

Outermost layer of bark – molecular (lamina molecularis) – contains numerous fibers directed tangentially relative to the surface, including the terminal branching of the dendrites of deeper neurons. The few small horizontal cells present here distribute their short processes in the same layer (Fig. 7.15, B).

Second layer - outer granular (lamina granularis externa) – contains a large number of small pyramidal and fewer stellate neurons. Dendrites of cells of deeper layers pass through these layers, and some of the ascending dendrites from layer 3 end in it. Predominant in this layer, as in the cortex as a whole, are axodendritic synapses.

Wide third layer (lamina pyramidalis externa) contains mainly medium and less often small and large pyramidal neurons. In a number of fields within this layer, three sublayers can be distinguished, in accordance with the gradual increase in cell size from top to bottom. Thin branching dendrites of neurons in this layer are directed to the second layer.

Fourth layer - internal granular (lamina granularis interna) consists of a large number of small granular, as well as medium and large stellate cells. It is divided into two sublayers (4 a and 4 b). In the upper sublayer there are usually stellate cells, some of which approach the pyramidal type. Their dendrites give off collaterals in their layer and reach the molecular layer.

The dendrites of stellate cells located in sublayer 4b are distributed in the same fourth layer.

The fifth layer, also called ganglionic (lamina ganglionaris) characterized by the presence of large, sparsely located pyramidal (gigantopyramidal) neurons in areas 4, 6 and in the depth of the cingulate sulcus. Their apical dendrites reach the molecular layer, and basal dendrites and collaterals are distributed within layer 5. A small part of the cells of the fifth layer are pyramids with short dendrites ending in the same layer. This layer can also be divided into two sublayers. The pyramids of the upper sublayer are smaller and their dendrites end in the fourth layer.

In the sixth - polymorphic layer (lamina multiformis) – fusiform neurons predominate. In addition, there are also triangular, pyramidal, oval and polygonal cells. Some spindle cells have long dendrites that give off collaterals in the sixth layer and then ascend without branching to the molecular layer. The dendrites of the middle spindles end in the fourth layer, while the dendrites of smaller cells generally do not extend beyond the fifth layer.

Afferent projection fibers, for example from the visual cortex, pass through the deep layers and terminate mainly in the fourth layer. Collateral branches of these fibers form numerous synapses on the ascending dendrites of large pyramidal and medium spindle cells in layer 4b, and the terminals of these fibers end on the dendrites of stellate cells in layer 4a. At this level, numerous thalamic fibers form dense plexuses.

A significant part of the thalamic afferents passes to the dendrites of the middle pyramids of the third layer. A powerful system of intracortical associative connections originates from the lower level of this layer.

Associative and commissural cortical afferent fibers along the way through the deep layers give off collaterals to them, however, the main level of their termination falls on layers 2–3. The first and fourth layers are the levels at which the distribution of most of the branching of associative and commissural fibers occurs.

The axons of layer 4 stellate cells end in the cortex, but some of them first pass through the underlying white matter, i.e. become associative or commissural.

The long axons of the fifth layer pyramidal cells are the main efferent projection fibers. Some of the axons of pyramidal cells belong to the associative system, and the smaller cells of layer 5 mainly send their axons to the opposite side through the corpus callosum. A significant part of the collaterals formed by the axons of pyramidal cells ends in layers 5 and 6.

The axons of the middle spindle cells of layer 6 enter the underlying white matter and are distributed to other areas of the cortex as association fibers. Their ascending collaterals form synapses on the dendrites of large and medium-sized pyramids, as well as polymorphic cells.

^ Myeloarchitecture and connections individual layers bark

Based on the study of the structural features and distribution of myelinated radial and transverse fibers of the cortex big brain is divided into several myeloarchitectonic regions. Massive accumulations of pulpy nerve fibers located tangentially to the surface cause the appearance of several myelin layers on different levels bark. The superficial zone of the first layer is devoid of myelinated fibers, and in the internal zone they form a rather loose strip of the molecular layer, mainly of obliquely running fibers. There are very few of them in the second layer.

A faint strip of myelin is located at the inner edge of the third layer. It is formed mainly by associative fibers of the cortex and is detected only in certain areas of the cortex, for example, in the 18th field. Clearly visible in the outer part of the fourth layer strip (stria laminae granularis interna Bailargeri) is represented by a large concentration of transverse fibers and radial bundles of heavily myelinated afferent projection, mainly thalamic fibers, traced throughout the neocortex.

In the lower half of the fifth layer there are more a thin strip of the ganglion layer (stria laminae ganglionaris Bailargeri), combining cortical efferent fibers and associative fibers connecting this area of ​​the cortex with other areas. It is absent in the area of ​​the calcarine groove in the occipital lobe. At the same time, the strip of the internal granular layer is much better developed here. It is visible to the naked eye and gave rise to the designation of this area of ​​the cortex as striatal.

In the neighboring 18th field, the stripes of the internal granular and ganglion layers merge, and in the fourth field these stripes are not distinguished at all. In the inner zone of layer 6 and in layer 7, so many myelin fibers condense that they hardly differ in intensity from the underlying one white matter.

Radial bundles of axons that separate columns of cortical cells gradually expand below and pass into the subcortical white matter. Heavily melinized fibers of the thalamic radiation terminate, for the most part, in the fourth layer. The radial fibers are weaker, heading from layers 5 and 6 to the underlying structures of the brain.

Afferents from the subcortex travel radially or obliquely in the cortex, breaking up into plexuses in layer 3. The radial fibers from the reticular structures also end here. In the ancient, old and interstitial cortex, radial fibers pass into large quantities into the upper layer, whereas in the neobark only isolated fibers continue above the inner edge of layer 3.

^ Morphofunctional features of individual areas of the cortex

The overwhelming part of the cerebral cortex in humans, in contrast to subprimates, has homotypic structure (typus homotypicus). This is due to a sharp increase in the evolution of the cerebral cortex of tertiary or interanalyzer zones, which receive information from the associative thalamic nuclei and ensure the integration of multimodal signals.

Such zones of overlap of the cortical ends of the analyzers occupy a significant space located between the frontal, occipital and temporal cortex. In them, pyramidal and stellate cells of the middle and upper sublayers of layer 3 and layer 2 are especially numerous. They have connections with sensory and motor areas and play a significant role in the processes of higher nervous activity.

Heterotypic kopa (neocortex), which is presented in the peripheral projection zones of analyzing systems, is divided into dusty(typus coniocorticalis) And agranular (typus agranulopyramidalis). The pulverulent cortex occupies primarily the area of ​​the auditory sensory system. It is characterized by the presence of a large number of small cells, especially in layers 2 and 4. The agranulopyramidal type is found in those areas that are responsible for voluntary movements.

The primary projection zones of the analyzers in the cortex have deviations from the usual six-layer type both in the number of layers and in the size and relative number of cells different types. All these zones are located in the posterior parts of the cortex. In the secondary zones adjacent to them, switching elements with subcortical afferents in the form of stellate cells of layer 4 and large pyramids of layer 3 come to the fore.

Histological examination reveals differences between the anterior frontal, posterior frontal, pre- and postcentral, temporal, superior and inferior parietal, occipital, insular, limbic and temporo-parietal-occipital regions of the cortex.

Taking into account a number of significant cytoarchitectonic features, such as the density and size of cells, the number of layers, their width, and the presence of specific types of neurons in them, it is possible to subdivide each cortical area into several fields. In the most common cytoarchitectonic maps (Brodmann and others) there are 52 fields, designated by numbers in the order of their description (Fig. 7.16).

Rice. 7.16. Map of cytoarchitectonic fields on the superolateral (A) and medial (B) surfaces of the hemisphere

The parietal lobe includes fields 1–5 and 43 in the postcentral region, 5–7 in the superior and 59–40 in the inferior parietal region. The precentral region includes fields 4 and 6, and the remaining areas of the frontal lobe are divided into fields 8–12 and 44–47. The insular region includes fields 13–16. The limbic cortex corresponds to areas 23–26, as well as 48–51.

The occipital lobe contains areas 17–19. The temporal lobe includes fields 20–22, 38, 41, 42 and 52. An area characteristic only of the human cortex is often identified, located on the border of the temporal, parietal and occipital lobes and covering fields 37, 39 and 40.

Fields 1 and 2, located on the outer surface of the posterior central gyrus and field 3 on the posterior wall of the central sulcus are the main somatosensory areas of the cortex, receiving the bulk of afferents from the ventrolateral nuclei of the thalamus opticus. In this case, fields 1 and 3 are primary, and field 2 is the secondary projection zone of the skin analyzer. Bottom part the posterior central gyrus (area 43) receives taste afferents (Fig. 7.17).

Rice. 7.17. Zones of representation of analyzer systems on the superolateral (A) and medial (B) surfaces of the hemispheres: 1– motor; 2– somatosensory; 3– auditory; 4– visual; 5– olfactory; 6– visceral

The rest, most parietal lobe occupied by associative zones. Areas 5 and 7 in the superior parietal lobule are necessary for the integration and correlation of various types of cutaneous sensitivity. With unilateral damage to the 7th field, the ability to determine the shape, volume and nature of the surface of objects when palpated with the contralateral hand is lost, so-called stereognosis. In addition, after damage to fields 5 and 7, there is a general decrease in skin sensitivity, as well as an inability to determine the location and intensity of pain stimuli.

In the parietal cortex, a complex analysis and synthesis of afferent flows coming from both one’s own body and the external environment is carried out to combine various types of information according to spatiotemporal parameters. Related to this is its certain role in spatial orientation, praxis, and certain types of gnostic activity.

Areas 5 to 7 have features of both sensory and motor cortex, i.e. medium width, pronounced striations, a light stripe in layer 5 and well-defined myelin stripes in layers 3 and 4, as well as giant pyramids. The cytoarchitectonic similarity of area 5 with the pre- and postcentral cortex allows us to consider it as the zone of primary overlap of the skin and motor analyzers.

Field 7, with a clear division into horizontal layers and a typical internal granular layer, contains more large cells in the anterior and small cells in the posterior areas, especially in layer 5. Closer to the occipital and limbic areas, subfields (7, , o, s) are distinguished. acquiring transitional structural features.

Common features of fields 39 and 40, located, respectively, in the supramarginal and angular gyri, are the relatively large width of the cortex, the predominance of small and dense cells, fine radial striations in all layers and the presence of a myelin strip in layer 3. In field 39, horizontal layering is pronounced, the cells are distributed in the form of massive columns. Based on the characteristics of the cytoarchitectonic structure, the upper and posterior subfields are distinguished. Field 40 is characterized by the fusion of layers 5 and 6 and good development of granular layers 2 and 4. It can be divided into superior, inferior and posterior subfields.

The afferent projection pathways to the parietal areas consist of fibers from the specific switching, nonspecific and associative nuclei of the thalamus opticus, which are part of the internal capsule and thalamic radiation. These include fibers that transmit tactile and kinesthetic signals from the ventral posterolateral and posteromedial nuclei to the dorsolateral part of the pillow, dorsomedial and other nuclei.

Due to inter- and intracortical fibers, connections are provided between the parietal areas with the pre- and postcentral, limbic and occipital areas, as well as with the parietal cortex of the opposite hemisphere through the corpus callosum. In the parietal region, part of the fibers of the pyramidal tract, extrapyramidal system, corticopontine-cerebellar, corticoreticular fibers and corticothalamic connections originate.

The territory of field 4, covering the anterior central gyrus, belongs to the agranular type. In it, layer 4 is not expressed, and layer 5 is characterized by the presence of giant pyramidal cells. The impulse spreading along the axons of these cells can lead to contraction of individual muscle groups, in accordance with the picture of the somatotopic projection, and damage to this area causes the development of spastic paresis on the opposite half of the body.

Area 6, which is the premotor area, includes the posterior parts of the superior and middle frontal gyri, anterior section paracentral lobule and the posterior third of the superior frontal gyrus on its medial surface. This secondary zone of the motor analyzer does not contain giant pyramids, but the system of interneuronal connections is much more developed in it. Along with associative connections with all other areas of the cortex, it has projection connections with the globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic nucleus and other formations of the extrapyramidal system, with the reticular formation of the brain stem, as well as commissural connections with the premotor area of ​​the other hemisphere.

Irritation of this field leads to the appearance of complex smooth movements.

The anterior frontal cortex is distinct from the premotor and motor cortex. great development layers 2 and 3, separation of layer 4 and close arrangement of small cells in it, as well as an increased content of associative and projection connections.

It receives the main projection connections from the anterior and dorsomedial nuclei of the thalamus optic. When this area is damaged, selective goal-directed behavior is disrupted, the ability to program motor tasks and compare the effect of an action with the original intentions is lost. The anterior frontal region takes a large part in the formation of complex cognitive and intellectual activity.

Bark vaulted gyrus (g. fornicatus) no cytoarchitectonic structure represents a multi-stage transition from the old cortex to the surrounding areas of the typical neocortex. In the cingulate gyrus in the anterior section, the layer of internal grains is absent, in the middle section it is weakly expressed, and in the posterior section the fourth layer appears quite clearly.

The pathways connecting the limbic region with other parts of the cortex pass mainly as part of the lumbar and subcallosal bundles. From the anterior portions of the limbic cortex, numerous fibers go to the frontal and precentral regions. Some of the fibers pass to the opposite hemisphere as part of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure and end in the caudate nucleus and putamen.

In the cingulate cortex, terminals of fibers emerging from the motor cortex are observed.

The posterior parts of the limbic cortex are connected with the cortex of the ammon's horn, with the nuclei of the thalamus optic, the inferior tubular region, the reticular formation of the trunk, the amygdala complex and the striatum.

The structures of the vaulted gyrus belong to the interstitial cortical formations and, when stimulated, autonomic reactions occur. The cingulate gyrus corresponds to fields 23, 24 and 33. Their bilateral damage, in addition to vegetative changes, causes apathy, akinesia, decreased skeletal muscle tone, indifference to pain and other affective states.

With electrical stimulation of other limbic structures - insular, hippocampal, amygdala, posterior orbital, supracallosal, medial olfactory - both autonomic and somatosensory and motor effects can appear.

The olfactory bulb is the primary, the olfactory tubercle and diagonal ligament are secondary, and the gyrus rectus and the corticomedial part of the amygdala complex are tertiary olfactory centers and their stimulation leads to corresponding olfactory sensations.

In the cortex of the lingular gyrus and cuneus, field 17 is represented - the primary visual projection zone. Within its boundaries, the representation of the lower part of the retina is localized in the lower, and the upper part of the retina - in the upper wall of the calcarine sulcus. The central region of the retina is projected onto the most posterior sections of the 17th field. Damage to it causes defects in the contralateral visual field, and local electrical stimulation causes sensations of the appearance of flashes, light spots and stripes in the corresponding parts of the visual field.

The surrounding structures of area 18 appear to receive their main afferents from the anterior colliculus and are connected to the precentral cortex. They take part in the processes of visual orientation and, when stimulated, visual images such as geometric shapes. The neighboring field 19 is associated with the extrapyramidal system. Its stimulation caused the appearance of visual images of previously seen objects with color effects. In addition to the above, when the visual centers are damaged, loss of visual memory and the ability to navigate in an unusual environment may occur.

In field 17, layer 3 is not divided into sublayers and consists of relatively small cells. At the same time, layer 4 is split into three sublayers. In field 18, at a depth of 3 layers, very large pyramidal cells are located in some places.

Areas 20–22 occupy a place in the inferior and middle temporal gyri. Unlike the main auditory area in the superior transverse gyrus (area 41), they do not receive afferents from the internal geniculate body. Field 42, like 20, is a secondary zone of representation of the auditory analyzer in the cortex, and field 22 is considered as an associative zone. In cytoarchitectonic terms, fields 41 and 42 are represented by heterotypic dust-like cortex, and in the row 22–20–21, homotypicity increases.

Damage involving the primary auditory zone leads to a decrease in hearing acuity and sound hallucinations, and damage to the secondary centers, most often on the left side, causes sensory aphasia, impaired understanding of speech while maintaining the ability to pronounce words.

The projection zone of the vestibular analyzer is located in front, in the areas of the temporal lobe adjacent to the auditory zone and partially overlaps with them. Electrical stimulation of this area leads to unpleasant sensations, such as dizziness.

With local damage to the posterior part of the left superior temporal gyrus (field 37), the ability to understand the meaning and semantic content of audible sounds and speech is impaired. Fields 39 and 40 in the supramarginal and angular gyri of the lower part of the parietal lobe are characteristic only of humans and are associated with the implementation of complex actions that require preliminary training, such as writing, counting, and professional skills. When they are damaged, the analysis and synthesis of systems of relationships between stimuli is disrupted, the ability to understand the meaning of written words is lost, the order of letters and configuration are confused when trying to write them (apraxia and agraphia).

Electrical stimulation of the border areas of the temporal lobe with the parietal and occipital lobes causes the emergence of visual and auditory hallucinations and memories from previous, often very distant in time, experience.

Section of the lower surface of the hemisphere (facies inferior hemispherii), located anterior to the lateral sulcus, belongs to the frontal lobe. Here, in the sagittal direction, parallel to the longitudinal fissure of the brain runs olfactory sulcus(sul. olfactorius)(Fig. 230). She's covered

Rice. 230. The lower surface of the cerebral hemispheres, ventral view. The posterior part of the brain stem (pons and medulla oblongata), as well as the cerebellum and anterior parts of the olfactory tracts were removed:

1 - straight gyrus; 2 - olfactory groove; 3 - orbital gyri; 4 - orbital grooves; 5 - olfactory tract; 6 - temporal pole; 7 - olfactory triangle; 8 - nasal groove; 9 - hook of the parahippocampal gyrus; 10 - parahippocampal sulcus; 11 - collateral groove; 12 - parahippocampal gyrus; 13 - inferior temporal gyrus; 14 - lateral occipitotemporal gyrus; 15 - posterior perforated substance; 16 - calcarine groove; 17 - medial occipitotemporal gyrus; 18 - cingulate gyrus; 19 - splenium of the corpus callosum; 20 - cerebral aqueduct; 21 - midbrain; 22 - red core; 23 - mastoid body; 24 - gray tubercle; 25 - anterior perforated substance; 26 - lateral olfactory stripe; 27 - medial olfactory stripe; 28 - visual chiasm; 29 - frontal pole; 30 - longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum

olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius), passing into the olfactory tract (tr. olfactorius). Between the olfactory sulcus and the longitudinal fissure of the brain is located gyrus rectus(gyrus rectus). Outside the olfactory sulcus there are several orbital grooves(sull. orbitales), limiting orbital gyri(gyri orbitales). The latter occupy the rest of the lower surface of the frontal lobe.

The section of the lower surface that is located behind lateral sulcus, refers to the temporal and occipital lobes. The external groove of the inferior surface of the temporal lobe is occipitotemporal(sul. occipitotemporal), which, together with the inferior temporal sulcus, limits inferior temporal gyrus(gyrus temporalis inferior). Medial to the occipitotemporal sulcus and almost parallel to it runs a deep collateral groove(sul. collateralis). Between these grooves are located lateral And medial occipitotemporal gyrus(gyrus occipitotemporal lateralis et medialis). Inward from the collateral groove is located parahippocampal gyrus(gyrus parahippocampalis).

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GENERAL NEUROLOGY
The totality of nervous tissue in the body is united by the concept of “nervous system”. The nervous system provides the perception of a variety of sensory, or afferent, impulses that arise during exercise.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The ability to transform perceived irritations into nerve impulses (reception) and respond to the corresponding stimulus is already possessed by the simplest single-celled organisms (amoeba, infuso

SPINAL CORD
The main functions of the spinal cord are conduction and reflex. Nerve impulses containing information from exteroceptors and proprioceptors of the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints enter the spinal cord

Spinal cord development
All parts of the human central nervous system develop from the neural tube, which becomes multilayered as a result of mitotic cell division. During this period, 3 layers can be distinguished in it: outer, or

Structure of the spinal cord
The spinal cord (medulla spinalis) is uneven in thickness, compressed from front to back cylindrical the cord is 45 cm long in men and 41-42 cm in women. Near

Spinal cord membranes
The spinal cord is covered with three connective tissue membranes that develop from the mesoderm surrounding the brain tube.

Questions for self-control
1. What are the main components of the somatic reflex arc? 2. What main types of neurons do you know? 3. What types of receptors do you know? 4. What are the main functions

General overview of the structure of the brain
The brain (encephalon) consists of 4 main parts: the telencephalon; diencephalon;

Brain Development
The brain is formed from the anterior section of the neural tube, which already in the earliest stages of development differs from the trunk section in its width. Uneven growth of different sections of the walls

Medulla
The medulla oblongata (medulla oblongata) is a section of the brain stem with an average length of 25 mm, which is a direct continuation of the spinal cord and is

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is closely connected with medulla oblongata, bridge and midbrain, it is located posterior to the named formations, fills most of the posterior cranial cavity

IV ventricle
The fourth ventricle (ventriculus quartus) is formed by the medulla oblongata, pons and cerebellum. It consists of a bottom, side walls and a roof. The bottom of the IV ventricle forms a rhombus

Midbrain
The midbrain (mesencephalon) is located between the pons and the diencephalon. It consists of the cerebral peduncles and the roof of the midbrain (Fig. 222). Brain stems

Diencephalon
The diencephalon is anatomically the part of the brain next to the brain stem. During embryogenesis, the diencephalon is formed and

III ventricle
The third (III) ventricle (ventriculus tertius) (Fig. 226) is the cavity of the diencephalon and is a narrow vertical gap between the medial surfaces of the diencephalon

Finite brain
The telencephalon is the largest section of the central nervous system (Fig. 227). In the formations of the terminal, or large, brain (cerebrum), centers are concentrated,

Cerebral cortex
The cerebral hemispheres correspond to the shape of the skull. In each of the hemispheres, 3 surfaces are distinguished: spherical superolateral (facies superolateral), relatively flat

Furrows and convolutions of the superolateral surface of the hemisphere
The deepest furrow superolateral surface hemisphere is the lateral groove (sul. lateralis). Slightly posterior to the middle of the hemisphere from the medial surface

Frontal lobe
Parallel to the central sulcus in the posterior part of the frontal lobe runs the precentral sulcus (sul. precentralis). From this furrow almost at a right angle in the longitudinal direction

Parietal lobe
Behind the central sulcus and parallel to it runs the postcentral sulcus (sul. postcentralis). At an angle close to a right angle, the intraparietal bo branches off from it.

Temporal lobe
On the lateral surface of the temporal lobe there are longitudinal superior and inferior temporal grooves (sull. temporales superior et inferior). Between the lateral groove

Insula
The insular lobe (lobus insularis) is located deep in the lateral sulcus and forms its bottom (Fig. 229). It is a triangular protrusion, the top of which is

Furrows and convolutions of the medial surface of the hemisphere
On the medial surface of the hemisphere (facies medialis hemispherii) (Fig. 231) directly below the corpus callosum there is a groove of the corpus callosum (sul. corporis callosi),

The structure of the cerebral cortex
The structure of the cerebral cortex, or the cerebral cortex, is represented by a cluster of neurons and cells of the intermediate substance - neuroglia. Thickness of the cortex covering the entire surface of the hemispheres

Olfactory brain
The olfactory brain (rhinencephalon) includes the olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius), olfactory tract (tr. olfactorius),

Basal ganglia
The basal ganglia are located in the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, closer to their base. They form 4 paired clusters of gray matter: the caudate and lenticular nuclei, the fence

Lateral ventricles
The cavities of the telencephalon are the lateral ventricles (ventriculi laterales). They are located in the thickness of the hemispheres. In each lateral ventricle there is a central part (par

White matter of the cerebral hemispheres
The white matter of the hemispheres is formed by fibers of the pathways of the telencephalon, which are grouped into 3 systems: 1) associative; 2) commissural; 3) projection. Associative ox

Afferent pathways
1. The pathways of proprioceptive sensitivity (deep) transmit impulses of deep sensitivity from proprioception to the area of ​​the cortical nucleus of the motor analyzer

Efferent pathways
1. The corticospinal (pyramidal) and corticonuclear tracts (Fig. 247) carry out efferent innervation of the arbitrary striated (skeletal) mu

Typical structural features of the central nervous system
Central nervous system different people has some specific structural and functional differences. These differences relate to the shape of the brain and its individual formations, size, mass and other

Meninges of the brain
The dura mater of the brain (dura materencephali) is adjacent to the inner surface of the bones of the skull and is tightly fused with it at the base and sutures. Loose connection about

Questions for self-control
1. Name the lobes of the telencephalon. 2. What large convolutions are located in the frontal lobe of the brain? 3. What are the main grooves and convolutions of the medial surface of the cephalic hemisphere?

GENERAL DATA ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF PERIPHERAL NERVES
Based on their location in the central nervous system, peripheral nerves are divided into spinal nerves, which originate from the spinal cord, and cranial nerves, which arise from the brain.

Development of spinal nerves
As noted above, at the beginning of the 1st month of embryonic development, the formation of the neural plate occurs, which closes into the neural tube. At the same time, the rudiments of the sensory are separated from it.

Anterior branches of the spinal nerves
The anterior branches of the spinal nerves (rr. anteriores) innervate the skin and muscles of the anterior neck and torso, as well as the skin and muscles of the extremities. The anterior branches maintain the floor

Brachial plexus
The brachial plexus (plexus brachialis) is formed by the anterior branches of the 4 lower cervical spinal nerves and the anterior branch of the 1st thoracic spinal nerve. In the plexus

Lumbar plexus
The lumbar plexus (plexus lumbalis) is formed by the anterior branches of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and partially 4th lumbar spinal nerves. In the formation of the plexus it can take

Sacral plexus
The sacral plexus (plexus sacralis) is formed by the anterior branches of the sacral spinal nerves. Short and long branches extend from the sacral plexus (Fig. 260).

BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT CRANIAL NERVES
Cranial nerves arise from the brain and, passing through the foramina and canals of the skull, reach the structures they innervate. There are 13 pairs of cranial nerves: 0 pair - terminal nerve

General information about the autonomic (vegetative) nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is part nervous system body, which innervates the blood and lymphatic vessels and internal organs that carry out the so-called growth

Development of the Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomous nervous system, which performs one of the most ancient functions - adaptive-trophic, ensures adaptation (adapto - try on, adjust) the body's metabolism to

Sympathetic trunk
The sympathetic trunk (truncus sympathicus) is paired, consists of a chain of nodes (gangll. trunci sympathici), connected by internodal branches. Both trunks are on their sides

Extraorgan and intramural autonomic plexuses
Extraorgan autonomic nerve plexuses are formed around large arterial trunks of the neck, chest, abdomen, and pelvis from fibers of both parts of the autonomic nervous system. Plexus p

Cervical and thoracic autonomic plexuses
From the branches of the cervical and, to a lesser extent, thoracic nodes of the sympathetic trunk and branches of the vagus nerves, it is formed on the outer

Abdominal autonomic plexuses
In the abdominal cavity, the main autonomous plexus is the celiac plexus (plexus coeliacus). It is located around the celiac arterial trunk and consists of accumulations of mainly sympatric

Intramural autonomic plexuses
The branches of the prevertebral vegetative plexuses described above, containing various conductors (sympathetic, parasympathetic and sensory), which are suitable together with the arteries, form in the walls

The cerebral hemispheres are the most massive part of the brain. They cover the cerebellum and brain stem. The cerebral hemispheres make up approximately 78% total mass brain During the ontogenetic development of the organism, the cerebral hemispheres develop from the terminal cerebral vesicle of the neural tube, therefore this part of the brain is also called the telencephalon. The cerebral hemispheres are divided along the midline by a deep vertical fissure into the right and left hemisphere. In the depths of the middle part, both hemispheres are connected to each other by a large commissure - the corpus callosum. In each hemisphere, there are lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and insula. The lobes of the cerebral hemispheres are separated from one another by deep grooves. The most important are three deep grooves: the central (Rolandic) groove, separating the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe; lateral (Sylvian), separating the temporal lobe from the parietal, and parieto-occipital, separating the parietal lobe from the occipital on the inner surface of the hemisphere. Each hemisphere has a superolateral (convex), lower and inner surface. Each lobe of the hemisphere has cerebral convolutions separated from each other furrows. The top of the hemisphere is covered with a cortex - a thin layer of gray matter, which consists of nerve cells. The cerebral cortex is the youngest formation of the central nervous system in evolutionary terms. In humans it reaches its highest development. The cerebral cortex is of great importance in regulating the life of the body, in the implementation of complex forms of behavior and the development of neuropsychic functions. Under the cortex is the white matter of the hemispheres, it consists of processes of nerve cells - conductors. Due to the formation of cerebral convolutions, the total surface of the cerebral cortex increases significantly. The total area of ​​the cerebral cortex is 1200 cm2, with 2/3 of its surface located in the depths of the grooves, and 1/3 on the visible surface of the hemispheres.

Each lobe of the brain has a different functional significance.

FRONTAL LOBE. The frontal lobe occupies the anterior parts of the hemispheres. It is separated from the parietal lobe by the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by the lateral sulcus. The frontal lobe has four gyri: one vertical - the precentral and three horizontal - the superior, middle and inferior frontal gyri. The convolutions are separated from each other by grooves. On the bottom surface frontal lobes distinguish between the rectus and orbital gyri. The gyrus recta lies between the inner edge of the hemisphere, the olfactory sulcus and the outer edge of the hemisphere. In the depths of the olfactory sulcus lie the olfactory bulb and the olfactory tract. The function of the frontal lobes is associated with the organization of voluntary movements, motor mechanisms of speech, regulation of complex forms of behavior, and thinking processes. Several functionally important centers are concentrated in the convolutions of the frontal lobe. The anterior central gyrus is a “representation” of the primary motor zone with a strictly defined projection of body parts. The face is “located” in the lower third of the gyrus, the hand in the middle third, and the leg in the upper third. The trunk is represented in the posterior parts of the superior frontal gyrus. Thus, a person is projected in the anterior central gyrus upside down and head down. The anterior central gyrus, together with the adjacent posterior sections of the frontal gyri, plays a very important functional role. It is the center of voluntary movements. In the posterior sections of the superior frontal gyrus there is also an extrapyramidal center of the cortex, which is closely connected anatomically and functionally with the formations of the so-called extrapyramidal system. The extrapyramidal system is a motor system that assists in voluntary movement. This is a system for “providing” voluntary movements. In the posterior part of the middle frontal gyrus there is the frontal oculomotor center, which controls the concomitant, simultaneous rotation of the head and eyes. In the posterior section of the inferior frontal gyrus there is a motor center for speech (Broca's center). The frontal cortex of the cerebral hemispheres also takes an active part in the formation of thinking, organization purposeful activities, long-term planning.

PARIETAL LOBE. The parietal lobe occupies the superolateral surfaces of the hemisphere. From the frontal parietal lobe in front and to the side it is limited by the central sulcus, from the temporal inferior - by the lateral sulcus, from the occipital - by an imaginary line running from the upper edge of the parieto-occipital sulcus to the lower edge of the hemisphere. On the superolateral surface of the parietal lobe there are three gyri: one vertical - posterior central and two horizontal - superior parietal and inferior parietal. The part of the inferior parietal gyrus, which encircles the posterior part of the lateral sulcus, is called supramarginal, and the part surrounding the superior temporal gyrus is the nodal (angular) region. The parietal lobe, like the frontal lobe, makes up a significant part of the cerebral hemispheres. In phylogenetic terms, it is distinguished old department- the posterior central gyrus, the new one - the superior parietal gyrus and the newer one - the inferior parietal gyrus. The function of the parietal lobe is associated with the perception and analysis of sensory stimuli and spatial orientation. Several functional centers are concentrated in the gyri of the parietal lobe. Sensitivity centers with a body projection similar to that in the anterior central gyrus are projected in the posterior central gyrus. The face is projected in the lower third of the gyrus, the arm and torso are projected in the middle third, and the leg is projected in the upper third. In the superior parietal gyrus there are centers responsible for complex species deep sensitivity: muscular-articular, two-dimensional-spatial sense, sense of weight and range of motion, sense of recognition of objects by touch. Thus, the cortical section of the sensitive analyzer is localized in the parietal lobe. Praxis centers are located in the lower parietal lobe. Praxis refers to purposeful movements that have become automated in the process of repetitions and exercises, which are developed in the course of training and constant practice over a period of time. individual life. Walking, eating, dressing, mechanical element of writing, different kinds labor activity (for example, the driver’s movements while driving, mowing, etc.) are praxis. Praxis is the highest manifestation of the motor function inherent in humans. It is carried out as a result of the combined activity of various areas of the cerebral cortex.

TEMPORAL LOBE. The temporal lobe occupies the inferolateral surface of the hemispheres. The temporal lobe is delimited from the frontal and parietal lobes by the lateral sulcus. On the superolateral surface of the temporal lobe there are three gyri - superior, middle and inferior. The superior temporal gyrus is located between the Sylvian and superior temporal fissures, the middle one is between the superior and inferior temporal sulci, and the inferior one is between the inferior temporal sulcus and the transverse medullary fissure. On the lower surface of the temporal lobe, there are the inferior temporal gyrus, the lateral occipitotemporal gyrus, and the gyri of the hippocampus (seahorse leg). The function of the temporal lobe is associated with the perception of auditory, gustatory, olfactory sensations, the analysis and synthesis of speech sounds, and memory mechanisms. The main functional center of the superior lateral surface of the temporal lobe is located in the superior temporal gyrus. The auditory, or gnostic, speech center (Wernicke's center) is located here. In the superior temporal gyrus and on the inner surface of the temporal lobe there is an auditory projection area of ​​the cortex. The olfactory projection area is located in the hippocampal gyrus, especially in its anterior section (the so-called uncus). Next to the olfactory projection zones there are also taste zones. The temporal lobes play important role in the organization of complex mental processes, in particular memory.

OCCIPITAL LOBE. The occipital lobe occupies the posterior parts of the hemispheres. On the convex surface of the hemisphere, the occipital lobe has no sharp boundaries separating it from the parietal and temporal lobes, with the exception of the upper part of the parieto-occipital sulcus, which, located on the inner surface of the hemisphere, separates the parietal lobe from the occipital lobe. The grooves and convolutions of the superolateral surface of the occipital lobe are not constant and have a variable structure. On the inner surface of the occipital lobe there is a calcarine groove that separates the wedge (a triangular lobe of the occipital lobe) from the lingual gyrus and the occipital-temporal gyrus. The function of the occipital lobe is associated with the perception and processing of visual information, the organization of complex processes of visual perception. In this case, the upper half of the retina of the eye is projected in the wedge area, perceiving light from the lower fields of vision; in the region of the lingular gyrus there is the lower half of the retina of the eye, which perceives light from the upper fields of vision.

ISLAND. The island, or the so-called closed lobule, is located in the depths of the lateral sulcus. The insula is separated from adjacent neighboring sections by a circular groove. The surface of the insula is divided by its longitudinal central groove into anterior and posterior parts. A taste analyzer is projected in the island.

CORPUS CALLOSUM. The corpus callosum is an arcuate thin plate, phylogenetically young, that connects the median surfaces of both hemispheres. The elongated middle part of the corpus callosum at the back becomes thickened, and at the front it bends and bends downward in an arched manner. The corpus callosum connects the phylogenetically youngest parts of the hemispheres and plays an important role in the exchange of information between them.

The cerebral cortex is divided into new, ancient, old and intermediate, essentially similar in structure. The new cortex (neocortex) occupies about 96% of the entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres and includes the occipital, inferior parietal, superior parietal, postcentral, precentral, frontal, temporal, insular and limbic regions. The new cerebral cortex is characterized by a six-layer structure:

Layer I – molecular plate (lamina molecularis);

II – external granular plate (lamina granularis externa);

III – external pyramidal plate (lamina pyramidalis externa);

IV – internal granular plate (lamina granularis interna);

V – internal pyramidal plate (lamina pyramidalis interna);

VI – multiform plate (lamina multiformis).

The ancient, old and intermediate cortex occupies 4.4% of the cerebral cortex.

Telencephalon: grooves and convolutions of the superolateral surface of the cerebral hemispheres.

External structure of the cerebral hemispheres, lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, insula.

telencephalon, telencephalon g consists of two hemispheres, each of which contains gray matter (cortex and basal ganglia), white matter and the lateral ventricle. Hemisphere of the brain, hemispherium cerebralis, has three surfaces: upper lateral, medial and lower (Facies superlateralis hemispherii cerebri. Facies medialis hemispherii cerebri. Facies inferior hemispherii cerebri). These surfaces are separated from each other by edges: superior, inferolateral and inferomedial (Margo superior. Margo inferolateralis. Margo inferomedialis). Each hemisphere has 5 lobes, in which there are grooves, sulci, and roller-like elevations located between them - convolutions, gyri. Frontal lobe, lobus frontalis, separated from below from the temporal lobe, lobus temporalis, lateral (Sylvian) fissure, sulcus lateralis, from the parietal central (Rolandic) fissure, sulcus centralis. , from the occipital lobe, lobus occipitalis, separated by the parieto-occipital groove, sulcus parietooccipitalis. The protruding parts of the three lobes of the hemispheres are called the frontal, occipital and temporal poles (Polus frontalis. Polus occipitalis. Polus temporalis). Fifth beat - o the insular lobe (islet), lobus insularis (insula), is not visible from the outside. This lobe can only be seen if the frontal and frontoparietal operculum are removed. The insula is separated from the adjacent parts of the brain by the circular groove of the insula, sulcus circularis insulae. On its surface there are long and short convolutions, gyri insulae longus et breves. Between the long groove located in the posterior part of the insula and the anterior grooves located in the anterior part, there is the central groove of the insula, sulcus centralis insulae. The anteroinferior part of the insula is thickened - it is called the threshold of the insula, limen insulae.

Fissures and convolutions of the superolateral surface within the frontal lobe

Frontal lobe, lobus frontalis, separated from the temporal lobe by the lateral groove, sulcus lateralis. In the anterior section, the lateral groove expands in the form of the lateral fossa, fossa lateralis cerebralis. Posteriorly, the frontal lobe is separated from the parietal central sulcus, sulcus centralis. Anterior to the central sulcus, parallel to it, is the precentral sulcus, sulcus precentralis. The furrow may consist of two parts. Between these grooves is the precentral gyrus, gyrus precentralis. The superior and inferior frontal sulci, sulci frontales superior et inferior, extend forward from the precentral sulcus. Medial between these grooves is the middle frontal gyrus, gyrus frontalis medius. Medial to the superior frontal sulcus is the superior frontal gyrus, gyrus frontalis superior, lateral to the inferior frontal sulcus is the inferior frontal gyrus, gyrus frontalis inferior. In the posterior part of this gyrus there are two small grooves: the ascending branch, ramus ascendens, and the anterior branch, ramus anterior, which adjoin at an angle to the lateral sulcus and divide the inferior frontal gyrus into three parts: tegmental, triangular and orbital. Tegmental part (frontal operculum), pars opercularis (operculum frontale). Triangular part, pars triangularis. Orbital part, pars orbitalis.

Fissures and convolutions of the superolateral surface within the parietal lobe

Parietal lobe, lobus parietalis, is separated from the occipital lobe by the parieto-occipital groove, sulcus parietooccipitalis, which is well defined on the medial surface of the hemisphere. It deeply dissects the upper edge of the hemisphere and passes to its superolateral surface. On this surface the groove is not always well defined, so it is usually continued in the form of a conventional line in the lower direction. In the parietal lobe there is a postcentral sulcus, sulcus postcentralis, running parallel to the central one. Between them is the postcentral gyrus, gyrus postcentralis. On the medial surface of the hemisphere, this gyrus connects with the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe. These parts of both gyri form the paracentral lobule, lobulus paracentralis. On the superolateral surface of the parietal lobe, the intraparietal groove, sulcus intraparietalis, extends parallel to the upper edge of the hemispheres. Above it lies the superior parietal lobule, lobulus parietalis superior; below and lateral to this groove is the inferior parietal lobule, lobulus parietalis inferior. Within this lobule there are two gyri: supramarginal, gyrus supramarginalis (around the terminal section of the lateral sulcus), and angular, gyrus angularis (around the terminal section of the superior temporal gyrus). The anterior part of the inferior parietal lobule, together with the lower sections of the post- and precentral gyri, are united under the general name of the frontoparietal operculum of the insula, operculum frontoparietale. This tegmentum, together with the frontal tegmentum, hangs over the insula, making it invisible from the superolateral surface.

Furrows and convolutions of the superolateral surface within the temporal and occipital lobes

Temporal lobe, lobus temporalis separated from the described lobes of the hemisphere by a deep lateral sulcus. The portion of the lobe covering the insula is called the temporal operculum, operculum temporale. In the temporal lobe, in the lower direction, parallel to the lateral sulcus, there are the superior and inferior temporal sulci, sulci superior et inferior, between which is the middle temporal gyrus, gyrus temporalis medius. Between the superior temporal and lateral gyri The superior temporal gyrus is localized, gyrus temporalis superior. On the upper surface of the gyrus, facing the island in the depth of the lateral sulcus, there are two or three short transverse temporal gyri (Heschl’s gyri), gyri temporales transversi. Between the inferior temporal sulcus and the inferolateral edge of the hemisphere, within the temporal lobe, there is the inferior temporal gyrus, gyrus temporalis inferior, the posterior section of which passes into the occipital lobe.

Occipital lobe, lobus occipitalis. The lobe relief on the superolateral surface is very variable. Most often present is the transverse occipital sulcus, sulcus occipitalis transversus, which can be imagined as a continuation towards the occipital pole of the intraparietal sulcus.

Telencephalon: grooves and convolutions of the medial and inferior surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres.

The concept of the analyzer according to Pavlov I.P., the cortex as a set of cortical ends of the analyzers

I.P. Pavlov considered the cerebral cortex as a huge perceptive surface (450,000 mm 2), as a collection of cortical ends of analyzers. The analyzer consists of three parts: 1) peripheral, or receptor, 2) conductive and 3) central, or cortical. The cortical part (end of the analyzer) has a core and periphery. Neurons belonging to a specific analyzer are concentrated in the nucleus. It is where the highest analysis and synthesis of information from receptors takes place. The periphery does not have clear boundaries, the cell density is lower, here the nuclei overlap each other. They carry out simple, elementary analysis and synthesis of information. Ultimately, at the cortical end of the analyzer, based on the analysis and synthesis of incoming information, responses are developed that regulate all types of human activity.

Limbic system

This is a set of formations of the telencephalon, diencephalon and midbrain. In the phylogeny of this system big role the sense of smell played a role, therefore, the main structures of the limbic system are located within the medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cortical formations of this system include the central part of the olfactory brain, rhinencephalon, which includes: the vaulted gyrus, the uncus, the dentate gyrus, the hippocampus, as well as the peripheral part of the olfactory brain, consisting of: the olfactory bulb, the olfactory tract, the olfactory triangle, the anterior perforated substance. The limbic system also includes subcortical formations: the basal ganglia, the septum pellucidum, some nuclei of the thalamus, hypothalamus and the reticular formation of the midbrain. Functions of the limbic system. It ensures the interaction of extero- and interoceptive influences and the development of responses to them from the autonomic nervous system, affecting the functioning of the respiratory, cardiovascular and other systems, and thermoregulation. It regulates the most general states of the body (sleep, wakefulness, expression of emotions, motivation). With all these reactions, the emotional condition, indicating the interaction of the limbic system with the cerebral cortex.

176. Lateral ventricle of the cerebral hemispheres: sections, their walls. Cerebrospinal fluid, its formation and outflow pathways.

Walls of the lateral ventricle

Medial - Hippocampus and Fimbria hippocampi

Cerebrospinal fluid, its formation and outflow pathways.

Cerebrospinal fluid, liquor cerebrospinalis. Liquor is one of the biological fluids of the body, located in all cavities of the central nervous system (ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord), in the subarachnoid and perineural spaces. Cerebrospinal fluid is formed as a result of ultrafiltration of blood plasma through the wall of the capillaries of the plexus choroideus III, IV and lateral ventricles and the activity of ependymal cells lining all cavities of the central nervous system. The total volume of cerebrospinal fluid is approximately 150 ml. Cerebrospinal fluid is constantly formed and flows in certain directions depending on the location (CNS cavity). From the lateral ventricles, cerebrospinal fluid enters the third ventricle through the interventricular foramina, and from it through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle. Liquor flows into it and from central channel spinal cord. From the cavity of the fourth ventricle, cerebrospinal fluid is directed through two lateral and median apertures into the subarachnoid space. From there it is filtered through the granulations of the arachnoid membrane (Pachionian granulations) into the venous blood of the sinuses of the dura mater of the brain. In this way, up to 40% of the cerebrospinal fluid flows away. Approximately 30% of cerebrospinal fluid drains into the lymphatic system through the perineural spaces of the spinal and cranial nerves. The remaining volume of cerebrospinal fluid is resorbed by the ependyma, and also sweats into the subdural space, and then is absorbed into the capillary vessels of the dura mater of the brain. Liquor has a relatively constant composition and is renewed 5–8 times during the day. If necessary, cerebrospinal fluid is most often taken through puncture of the subarachnoid space of the spinal cord between the II and III lumbar vertebrae.

The wall of the blood capillaries of the brain and especially the choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain on the one hand, cerebrospinal fluid and nervous tissue on the other, form the blood-brain barrier. This barrier prevents the penetration of certain substances and microorganisms from the blood into the brain tissue.

Functions of cerebrospinal fluid:

1. Protects the SM and GM from mechanical influences during movement.

1. Ensures the constancy of the internal environment of the body.
2. Participates in the trophism of nervous tissue.
3. Takes part in neurohumoral regulation.
4. Used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

Epithalamus and metathalamus

Epithalamus (suprathalamic, supratuberous region), epithalamus, consists of 5 small formations. The largest of them is the pineal body (pineal gland, epiphysis cerebri), corpus pineale (glandula pinealis, epiphysis cerebri), weighing 0.2 g. It is located in the groove between the superior colliculi of the midbrain. Through the leashes, habenulae, the epithalamus is connected to the visual tuberosities. In these places there are extensions - this is the leash triangle, trigonum habenulae. The parts of the leashes included in the epithalamus form the commissure of the leashes, comissura habenularum. Below the epithalamus there are transversely located fibers - the epithalamic commissure, comissura epithalamica. Between it and the commissure of the leashes, a pineal-shaped depression, recessus pinealis, protrudes into the epithalamus.

Metathalamus (zathalamic, foreign region), metathalamus, represented by paired medial and lateral geniculate bodies. The lateral geniculate body, corpus geniculatum laterale, is located on the side of the optic thalamus cushion. The fibers of the optic tract enter it. Through the handles of the superior colliculi, the lateral geniculate bodies are connected to the superior colliculi; the lateral geniculate bodies and the superior colliculi of the midbrain are the subcortical centers of vision. Under the pillow are the medial geniculate bodies, corpus geniculatum mediale, which are connected to the lower colliculi by means of handles. The fibers of the lateral auditory lemniscus end here, the medial geniculate bodies and the inferior colliculi end as subcortical hearing centers.

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus (subthalamic, subcutaneous region), hypothalamus, includes the lower parts of the diencephalon: optic chiasm, optic tracts, gray tubercle, infundibulum, pituitary gland and mastoid bodies. The optic chiasm, chiasma opticum, is formed by the medial fibers of the nn. optici, which move to the opposite side and become part of the visual tract, tractus opticus. The tracts are located medial and posterior to the anterior perforated substance, bend around the cerebral peduncle from the lateral side and enter the subcortical centers of vision with two roots: the lateral root enters the lateral geniculate body, and the medial root enters the superior colliculus of the roof of the midbrain.

The gray tubercle, tuber cinereum, is located behind the optic chiasm. The lower part of the tubercle looks like a funnel, infundibulum, on which the pituitary gland is suspended. The vegetative nuclei are localized in the gray mound.

The pituitary gland, hypophysis, is located in the sella turcica of the body of the sphenoid bone, has a bean-shaped shape and weighs 0.5 g. The pituitary gland, like the epiphysis, belongs to the endocrine glands.

Mastoid bodies, corpora mamillaria, white, have a spherical shape, their diameter is about 0.5 cm. Inside the mammillary bodies are the subcortical nuclei (centers) of the olfactory analyzer.

The hypothalamus has more than 30 nuclei. Neurons of many nuclei produce neurosecretion, which is transported along the processes of neurons to the pituitary gland. These nuclei are called neurosecretory. All of the mentioned nuclei belong to the higher vegetative centers and have extensive nervous and humoral connections with the pituitary gland, which gave rise to combining them into the hypothalamic-pituitary system.

Isthmus of the rhombencephalon

Isthmus of the rhombencephalon, isthmus rhombencephali. It includes three structures located on the border of the midbrain and rhombencephalon:

1. Superior cerebellar peduncles, pedunculi cerebellares superiores. They contain the anterior spinocerebellar tracts.

2. Superior medullary velum, velum medullare superius. It is represented by a thin plate of white matter, which is attached to the superior cerebellar peduncles, the cerebellar vermis, and the roof of the midbrain through the frenulum of the superior medullary velum. On the sides of the frenulum emerge the roots of the fourth pair of cranial nerves, trochlear, n. trochlearis.

3. Loop triangle, trigonum lemnisci. It is localized in the lateral part of the isthmus, has grey colour and is limited in front by the handle of the lower colliculus, brachium colliculi inferioris; laterally – by the lateral groove of the midbrain, sulcus lateralis mesencephali; medially - the superior cerebellar peduncle.

Within the loop triangle there are structures of the hearing analyzer: the lateral lemniscus and the nuclei of the lateral lemniscus.

Brain stems

Brain peduncles, pedunculi cerebri, are located in front of the bridge in the form of thick ridges, each of which enters the corresponding hemisphere. Between the legs there is an interpeduncular fossa, fossa interpeduncularis, the bottom of which is called the posterior perforated substance, substantia perforata posterior, which serves for the passage of blood vessels. On the medial surface of the cerebral peduncles emerge the roots of the third pair of cranial nerves, n. oculomotorius.

A frontal section of the cerebral peduncle shows a black substance, substantia nigra, separating the tegmentum, tegmentum, from the base of the cerebral peduncle, basis pedunculi cerebri. The substantia nigra extends from the pons to the diencephalon. In the tire from the lower colliculi to the visual hillocks there is a red nucleus, nucleus ruber. The substantia nigra and red nucleus belong to the extrapyramidal system. The tegmentum contains ascending (sensitive) pathways as part of the medial and lateral loops. At the base of the legs, only descending (motor) pathways are localized: occipitotemporal-parietopontine, corticospinal, corticonuclear, frontopontine. From the tegmentum of the midbrain and the red nucleus, two extrapyramidal tracts begin: the roof-spinal cord and the red nucleus-spinal cord. In the tegmentum of the cerebral peduncles dorsal to the nuclei nn. Oculomotorii contains the nucleus of the medial longitudinal fasciculus, fasciculus longitudinalis medialis. It runs along the cerebral aqueduct and connects the nuclei of the III, IV, VI, VIII, XI pairs of cranial nerves with the motor cells of the anterior horns of the cervical segments of the spinal cord. This connection determines combined movements, as well as combined movements when the receptors of the vestibular analyzer are stimulated. Within the midbrain there are also structures of the reticular formation.

Reticular formation.

Reticular formation , formatio reticularis, represented by more than 100 nuclear clusters of neurons connecting in various directions many nerve fibers. Located in the brain stem, as well as between the lateral and posterior columns of the spinal cord. Neurons of the reticular formation have features: their dendrites are weakly branched, and their axons have numerous branches, thanks to which each of the neurons comes into contact with a huge number of other neurons. Neurons of the reticular formation are located between the ascending and descending pathways and have extensive connections with all parts of the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex.

One of the functional features of the reticular formation is that its neurons are capable of being excited by nerve impulses coming from receptors of different sensory organs or different parts of the central nervous system, i.e. due to convergence (convergence) nerve impulses from various sources. Other functional feature reticular formation is that the excitation that arises in any group of neurons spreads relatively evenly to the overwhelming number of other neurons, and in its nature this excitation becomes homogeneous, regardless of the type of the original source of excitation (receptor) and the specific characteristics of the energy of the stimulus. The function of the reticular formation is that it exerts an activating effect on the cerebral cortex, on all other parts of the central nervous system and sensory organs, supporting high level their energy potential. It ensures the preservation of the automaticity of the activity of vital respiratory and cardiovascular centers in various functional states of the body, and promotes the development of conditioned reflexes.

GM dura shell

The outer layer of the brain, dura mater encephali (pachymeninx), is represented by dense connective tissue. The outer layer of the shell is adjacent to the bones of the brain skull and is their periosteum, and the inner layer faces the arachnoid membrane and is covered with endothelium. The dura mater of the brain has several processes located between certain parts of the brain:

1. The falx cerebri, falx cerebri, is a plate of the dura mater between the hemispheres of the cerebrum.

2. The tentorium (tent) of the cerebellum, tentorium cerebelli, is located above the cerebellum in the transverse fissure of the cerebrum. The tentorium separates the occipital lobes of the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum.

3. The falx of the cerebellum, falx cerebelli, is located between its hemispheres behind and above. The posterior edge of the falx is attached to the crista occipitalis interna; at its base is the occipital sinus.

4. The sella diaphragm, diaphragma sellae, is represented by a horizontal plate stretched over the pituitary fossa. Below the diaphragm is the pituitary gland. A funnel passes through a hole in the center of the diaphragm.

Commissural fibers

The most powerful commissural structure is the corpus callosum, corpus callosum, in which there is a knee, genu, beak, rostrum, which passes into the terminal plate, lamina terminalis; middle part – trunk, truncus; and the most posterior section is the splenium. Fibers running transversely in the corpus callosum in each hemisphere form the radiance of the corpus callosum, radiatio corporis callosi. The trunk fibers provide communication between the gray matter of the parietal and temporal lobes, the splenium connects the occipital lobes, and the genu connects the frontal lobes. Between the corpus callosum and the fornix there is a transparent septum, septum pellucidum, it consists of two thin plates, lamina septi pellucidi, fixed in front to the beak, knee and body of the corpus callosum (above), and behind - to the body and column of the corpus callosum. Between the transparent plates there is a slit-like cavity of the transparent septum, cavum septi pellucidi. The plates of the septum pellucidum are the medial walls of the right and left anterior horns of the lateral ventricles.

The commissural fibers include four more formations: The anterior commissure, comissura anterior (rostralis), lies in front of the columns of the fornix, connects the olfactory areas of the hemispheres and the parahippo-campal gyri. The fibers of the anterior part of the commissure connect the gray matter of the olfactory triangles of both hemispheres, and the fibers of the posterior part of the commissure - cortex of the anteromedial temporal lobes. Adhesion of leashes, comissura habenularum binds leashes. Epithalamic commissure, comissura epithalamica (posterior). The commissure of the fornix, comissura fornicis, connects the legs of the fornix posteriorly.

Association fibers

Short associative pathways in the form of arcuate fascicles, fibrae arcuatae cerebri, connect areas of the cortex of neighboring gyri with each other, long associative pathways connect areas of the cortex of the lobes of the hemispheres. The cortex of the frontal lobe communicates with the cortex of the parietal, occipital lobes and the posterior part of the temporal lobe through the superior longitudinal fasciculus, fasciculus longitudinalis superior. The cortical zones of the temporal and occipital lobes are connected by the lower longitudinal fasciculus, fasciculus longitudinalis inferior. The cortex of the orbital surface of the frontal lobe is connected with the cortex of the pole of the temporal lobe by the uncinate fasciculus, fasciculus uncinatus. A bundle of fibers called the cingulum, passing into the vaulted gyrus, gyrus fornicatus, connects sections of the cingulate gyrus both with each other and with neighboring gyri of the medial surface of the hemispheres.

Inner capsule

One group of commissural fibers runs from the cortical and basal ganglia of the hemispheres to the brain stem and spinal cord. Other fibers follow in the opposite direction. These two groups of fibers form the internal capsule and corona radiata in each hemisphere. The internal capsule, capsula interna, is located between the lentiform nucleus, the head of the caudate nucleus (anterior) and the thalamus (posterior). The capsule contains the anterior leg, crus anterior capsulae internae, the posterior leg, crus posterior capsulae internae, and the knee of the internal capsule, genu capsulae internae. The anterior leg contains the frontothalamic and frontopontine tracts, tr. frontothalamicus et frontopontinus, connecting the frontal cortex with the thalamus and pons. In the knee of the internal capsule there is a corticonuclear tract, tr. corticonuclearis. The posterior leg contains fibers of the corticospinal tract, tr. corticospinalis, thalamocortical fibers, tr. thalamocorticalis, corticothalamic tract, tr. corticothalamicus, parieto-occipito-pontine fasciculus, fasciculus parietooccipitopontinus, auditory and visual pathways, radiatio acustica et optica, going from the subcortical centers of hearing and vision to the cortical nuclei of these analyzers. The corona radiata, corona radiata, consists of fibers of ascending pathways that fan out to different parts of the cerebral cortex. Among these fibers, fibers pass in a descending direction into the cerebral peduncles.

Retina

The retina (the inner, sensitive shell of the eyeball), retina, tunica interna (sensoria) bulbi, has two layers: the outer pigment part, pars pigmentosa, and the inner light-sensitive, called the nervous part, pars nervosa. According to function, the large posterior one is distinguished visual part retina, pars optica retinae containing sensitive elements - rods and cones, and the smaller “blind” part of the retina, devoid of rods and cones, combining the ciliary and iris parts of the retina, pars ciliaris et iridica retinae. The border between the visual and the “blind” parts is the serrated edge, ora serrata. It corresponds to the place of transition of the choroid proper into the ciliary circle, orbiculus ciliaris of the choroid.

At the bottom of the eyeball there is a whitish spot with a diameter of about 1.7 mm - the optic disc, discus nervi optici, with raised edges and a small depression, excavatio disci in the center. This is the place where the optic nerve fibers exit the eyeball, it does not have light-sensitive cells and is called the blind spot. In the center of the disk, the central artery, a.centralis retinae, entering the retina is visible. 4 mm lateral to the disc, at the level of the posterior pole of the eye, there is a yellowish spot, the macula, with a small depression - the central fovea, fovea centralis. This is the place of best vision, only cones are concentrated here.

Muscles of the eyeball.

There are six muscles of the eyeball: four rectus (superior, inferior, lateral and medial) and two oblique (superior and inferior). All rectus muscles and the superior oblique begin in the depths of the orbit from the common tendon ring, anulus tendineus communis, fixed to the sphenoid bone and periosteum around the optic canal, and partially from the edges of the superior orbital fissure. The ring surrounds the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery, from which the muscle that lifts the upper eyelid, m. levator palpebrae superioris The rectus muscles pierce the vagina of the eyeball, vagina bulbi, and with short tendons are woven into the sclera in front of the equator, retreating 5-8 mm from the edge of the cornea. Lateral and medial rectus muscles, mm. recti lateralis et medialis, turn the eyeball in their direction. Superior and inferior rectus muscles, mm. recti superior et inferior, turn the eyeball upward and somewhat outward and downward and inward, respectively. Superior oblique muscle, m. obliquus superior, has a thin round tendon that extends over the trochlea, the trochlea, built in the form of a ring of fibrous cartilage, turns the eyeball down and laterally. Inferior oblique muscle, m. obliquus inferior, starts from the orbital surface of the upper jaw near the opening of the nasolacrimal canal, turns the eyeball upward and laterally.

Eyelids.

At the border of the upper eyelid and forehead, a skin covered with hair protrudes - the eyebrow, supercilium. The upper and lower eyelids, palpebra superior et inferior, have a front surface of the eyelid, facies anterior palpebrae, covered with thin skin with short vellus hair, sebaceous and sweat glands, and a back surface, facies posterior palpebrae, facing the eyeball, covered with conjunctiva, tunica conjuctiva . In the thickness of the eyelids there is a connective tissue plate - the upper eyelid cartilage, tarsus superior, and the lower eyelid cartilage, tarsus interior, as well as the age-old part of the orbicularis oculi muscle. From the upper and lower cartilages of the eyelids to the anterior and posterior lacrimal ridges, the medial ligament of the eyelid, ligamenturn palpebrale mediale, is directed, covering the lacrimal sac in front and behind. To the lateral wall of the orbit from the cartilages follows the lateral ligament of the eyelid, ligamentum palpebrale laterale, which corresponds to the lateral suture, raphe palpebralis lateralis. The tendon of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle is attached to the cartilage of the upper eyelid. The free edge of the eyelid forms the anterior and posterior edges of the eyelids, limbi palpebrales anterior et posterior and bears the eyelashes, cilia. Closer to the posterior edge, the openings of the modified sebaceous (meibomian) glands of the cartilage of the eyelids, glandulae tarsales, open. The edges of the eyelids limit the transverse palpebral fissure, rima palpebrarum, which is closed by the fusions of the eyelids - the medial and lateral commissures of the eyelids, comissura palpebralis medialis et lateralis.

Conjunctiva.

The conjunctiva, tunica conjunctiva, is a connective tissue membrane. It contains the conjunctiva of the eyelids, tunica conjunctiva palperarum, and the conjunctiva of the eyeball, tunica conjunctiva bulbaris. At the point of their transition into each other, depressions are formed - the upper and lower fornix of the conjunctiva, fornix conjunctive superior et inferior. The entire space limited by the conjunctiva is called the conjunctival sac, saccus conjunctivae. The lateral angle of the eye, angulus oculi lateralis, is more acute. The medial corner of the eye, angulus oculi medialis, is rounded and on the medial side it limits the depression - the lacrimal lake, lacus lacrimalis. There is also a small elevation here - the lacrimal caruncle, caruncula lacrimalis, and lateral to it - the semilunar fold of the conjunctiva, pilca semilunaris conjunctivae. On the free edge of the upper and lower eyelids, near the medial corner of the eye, there is a lacrimal papilla, papilla lacrimalis, with an opening at the top - the lacrimal punctum, punctum lacrimale, which is the beginning of the lacrimal canaliculus.

Lacrimal apparatus

The lacrimal apparatus, apparatus lacrimalis, includes the lacrimal gland with its excretory canaliculi and lacrimal ducts. The lacrimal gland, glandula lacrimalis, a complex alveolar-tubular gland with a lobular structure, lies in the fossa of the same name in the lateral corner of the upper wall of the orbit. The tendon of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle divides the gland into a large upper orbital part, pars orbitalis, and a smaller lower eyelid part, pars palpebralis, lying near the upper fornix of the conjunctiva. Under the fornix of the conjunctiva, small accessory lacrimal glands are sometimes found. The excretory canaliculi of the lacrimal gland, ductuli excretorii, up to 15 in number, open into the conjunctival sac in the lateral part of the upper fornix of the conjunctiva. The tear washes the eyeball, along the capillary fissure near the edges of the eyelids along the lacrimal stream, rivus lacrimalis, flows into the area of ​​the medial corner of the eye, into the lacrimal lake. In this place, short (about 1 cm) and narrow (0.5 mm) curved upper and lower lacrimal canaliculi, canaliculi lacrimales, begin, opening into the lacrimal sac, saccus lacrimalis, lying in the fossa of the same name in the inferomedial corner of the eye. It passes into the nasolacrimal sac. duct (up to 4 mm), ductus nasolacrimalis, opening into the lower nasal passage. The lacrimal part of the orbicularis oculi muscle is fused to the anterior wall of the lacrimal sac, which expands the lacrimal sac, which facilitates the absorption of tear fluid into it through the lacrimal canaliculi.

Refractive media of the eyeball. Cornea, lens, vitreous body, chambers of the eyeball, their functions. Formation and outflow of aqueous humor from the chambers of the eyeball.

Cameras of the eyeball.

The anterior chamber of the eyeball, camera anterior bulbi, containing aqueous humor, humor aquosus, is located between the cornea and the anterior surface of the iris. Through the opening of the pupil, the anterior chamber communicates with the posterior chamber of the eyeball, camera posterior bulbi. The latter is located between the lens and the posterior surface of the iris and is also filled with aqueous humor.

Formation and outflow of aqueous humor.

The anterior part of the ciliary body forms about 70 radially oriented folds, thickened at the ends, each up to 3 mm long - ciliary processes, processus ciliares, consisting of blood vessels and making up the ciliary crown, corona ciliaris. They produce aqueous humor, humor aquosus. Aqueous humor enters the spaces of the zonule, spatia zonularia, which have the appearance of a circular fissure (Petite canal) lying along the periphery of the lens. From there, aqueous humor flows through the pupil into the anterior chamber of the eyeball. It is circumferentially limited by the pectineal ligament, between the fiber bundles of which there are gaps - the spaces of the iridocorneal angle, spatia anguli iridocorneales (fountain spaces). Through them, aqueous humor from the anterior chamber flows into the venous sinus of the sclera, and from it enters the anterior ciliary veins.

Lens

The lens, lens, has an anterior and posterior surface, facies anterior et posterior lentis, anterior and posterior pole, polus anterior et posterior. The conventional line connecting the poles is called the axis of the lens, axis lentis. The peripheral edge of the lens is called the equator. The substance of the lens, substantia lentis, is colorless, transparent and dense. The inner part is the nucleus of the lens, nucleus lentis, denser than the peripheral part - the cortex of the lens, cortex lentis. On the outside, the lens is covered with a thin transparent elastic capsule, capsula lentis, which is attached to the ciliary body with the help of a ciliary band, zonula ciliaris (ligament of Zinn).

Organs of smell and taste.

Olfactory organ.

In humans, the organ of smell, organum olfactorium, is located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. The olfactory region of the nasal mucosa, regio olfactoria tunicae mucosae nasi, has neurosensory cells, epithelial cells, cellulae (epitheliocyti) neurosensoriae olfactoriae. Underneath them lie supporting cells, cellulae sustentaculares. The mucous membrane contains olfactory (Bowman's) glands, glandulae olfactoriae, the secretion of which moisturizes the surface of the receptor layer. The peripheral processes of the olfactory cells bear olfactory hairs (cilia), and the central ones form 15-20 olfactory nerves, which, through the openings of the cribriform plate of the same bone, penetrate into the cranial cavity, then into the olfactory bulb, where the axons of the olfactory neurosensory cells come into contact with the mitral cells . The processes of the mitral cells in the thickness of the olfactory tract are sent to the olfactory triangle, and then, as part of the olfactory stripes (intermediate and medial), enter the anterior perforated substance, the subcallosal area, area subcallosa, and the diagonal strip (Broca's strip), bandaletta (stria) diagonalis ( Broca). As part of the lateral stripe, the processes of mitral cells follow into the parahippocampal gyrus and into the uncus, which contains the cortical center of smell.

Organ of taste

Organ of taste, organum gustus. Taste buds, calliculi gustatorii, numbering about 2000, are located mainly in the mucous membrane of the tongue, as well as the palate, pharynx, and epiglottis. The largest number of them are located in the grooved papillae, papillae vallatae, and leaf-shaped papillae, papillae foliatae. Each bud is made up of taste and supporting cells. At the top of the bud there is a taste opening (pore), porus gustatorius. On the surface of taste cells are the endings of nerve fibers that perceive taste sensitivity. In the area of ​​the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, this sense of taste is perceived by the fibers of the tympanic chord of the facial nerve, in the posterior third of the tongue and in the area of ​​the circumvallate papillae) by the endings of the glossopharyngeal nerve. This nerve also innervates the mucous membrane of the soft palate and palatine arches. From sparsely located taste buds in the mucous membrane of the epiglottis and the inner surface of the arytenoid cartilages, taste impulses arrive through the superior laryngeal nerve, a branch of the vagus nerve. The central processes of the neurons that carry out taste innervation in the oral cavity are sent as part of the corresponding cranial nerves (VII, IX, X) to their common sensitive nucleus, nucleus solitarius. The axons of the cells of this nucleus are sent to the thalamus, where the impulse is transmitted to the following neurons, the central processes of which end in the cerebral cortex, the uncus of the parahippocampal gyrus. The cortical end of the taste analyzer is located in this gyrus.

Skin structure.

Introduction

1. Lobes of the hemispheres

2. Sulci of the parietal lobe of the telencephalon

3. Precentral gyrus

4. Postcentral gyrus

5. Parietal lobe analyzers

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The telencephalon develops from the forebrain and consists of highly developed paired parts - the right and left hemispheres and the middle part connecting them.

The hemispheres are separated by a longitudinal fissure, in the depth of which lies a plate of white matter, consisting of fibers connecting the two hemispheres - the corpus callosum. Under the corpus callosum there is a vault, which consists of two curved fibrous cords, which are connected to each other in the middle part, and diverge in front and behind, forming the pillars and legs of the vault. Anterior to the columns of the arch is the anterior commissure. Between the anterior part of the corpus callosum and the fornix is ​​a thin vertical plate of brain tissue - a transparent septum.

The hemisphere is formed by gray and white matter. It contains the largest part, covered with grooves and convolutions - a cloak formed by the gray matter lying on the surface - the cortex of the hemispheres; olfactory brain and accumulations of gray matter inside the hemispheres - the basal ganglia. The last two sections constitute the oldest part of the hemisphere in evolutionary development. The cavities of the telencephalon are the lateral ventricles.

In each hemisphere, three surfaces are distinguished: the superolateral (superolateral) is convex according to the cranial vault, the middle (medial) is flat, facing the same surface of the other hemisphere, and the bottom is irregular in shape. The surface of the hemisphere has complex drawing, thanks to the grooves running in different directions and the ridges between them - convolutions. The size and shape of the grooves and convolutions are significant individually fluctuates. However, there are several permanent grooves that are clearly expressed in everyone and appear earlier than others during the development of the embryo.

1. Lobes of the hemispheres

Rice. 1. Furrows and convolutions of the left hemisphere of the cerebrum; superolateral surface

Each hemisphere has four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital, as well as the insula, which is sometimes called the fifth lobe.

Frontal lobe occupies the anterior part of the cranial cavity, including the anterior cranial fossa.

Parietal lobe includes three sulci: precentral, central and postcentral sulci, as well as two gyri: postcentral and precentral.

Temporal lobe located in the middle cranial fossa and separated from the frontal and parietal lobes by the lateral fossa cerebri and the lateral sulcus.

Occipital lobe lies above the cerebellum in the posterior part of the cranial cavity.

Island lies deep in the lateral fossa of the cerebrum.

Each lobe has convolutions and grooves of various sizes and directions. They can vary from person to person and even from one person to another in different hemispheres, but, as a rule, they maintain a similar overall configuration. Fissures and convolutions do not appear simultaneously during brain development. The first to appear are the central, lateral, parieto-occipital and some other grooves, constant in position and relatively deep. The process of formation of small furrows continues after birth.

2. Sulci of the parietal lobe of the telencephalon

Central groove

The frontal and parietal lobes are delimited by the central, or Rolandic sulcus (sulcus centralis), which cuts through the upper edge of the hemisphere and is directed along its convexital surface down and forward, slightly short of the lateral sulcus.

Precentral sulcus

In the frontal lobe, in front of the central gyrus and parallel to it, there is a precentral (gyrus precentralis), or anterior central, gyrus, which is limited in front by the precentral sulcus (sulcus precentralis). The superior and inferior frontal sulci extend anteriorly from the precentral sulcus, dividing the convexital surface of the anterior parts of the frontal lobe into three frontal gyri - superior, middle and inferior (gyri frontales superior, media et inferior).

Post-central furrow

The anterior section of the convexital surface of the parietal lobe is made up of the postcentral (gyruspostcentral), or posterior central, gyrus located behind the central sulcus. At the back it is bordered by the postcentral groove, from which the intraparietal groove (sulcus intraparietalis) stretches back, separating the superior and inferior parietal lobes (lobuli parietales superior et inferior).

3. Precentral gyrus

The precentral gyrus (lat. gyrus precentralis) is a section of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. It begins the pyramidal tract, which, ending on the motor neurons of the spinal cord and the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves, provides conscious movements.

The precentral gyrus is located in the frontal lobe, anterior to the central sulcus. Its boundaries are:

anteriorly - precentral sulcus

posterior - central sulcus

A feature of the structure of the precentral gyrus is, first of all, its thickness. It reaches 4.5 mm and is the largest in comparison with other areas of the cortex. Layer V of the precentral gyrus cortex is represented by Betz giant cells. At the same time, layer IV (the cells of which receive afferent information from the thalamus) is practically not developed. Cell layer V borders layer III of the cortex.

Let's consider the functions of the gyrus:

Voluntary muscle movements arise due to impulses traveling along long nerve fibers from the cerebral cortex. These fibers form the motor or pyramidal tract. They are axons of neurons located in the precentral gyrus, in the 4th cytoarchitectonic Brodmann area.

Neurons innervating the pharynx and larynx are located in the lower part of the precentral gyrus. Next, in ascending order, come the neurons innervating the face, arm, torso, and leg. Thus, all parts of the human body are projected in the precentral gyrus, as if upside down. This pattern was noted by the Canadian neurosurgeon Penfield, and the image he obtained is called the “motor homunculus.”

Motor neurons of field 4 control voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles of the opposite half of the body, since most of the pyramidal fibers pass to the opposite side in the lower part of the medulla oblongata.

Semiotics of defeat:

When the precentral gyrus is damaged, central paresis or paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body in a monotype (paresis or paralysis occurs either in the arm, leg or facial muscles, depending on the location of the lesion). When the precentral gyrus is irritated, epileptic attacks occur, which are characterized by twitching separate groups muscles corresponding to the irritated areas of the cortex. Seizures can develop into a general convulsive seizure

4. Postcentral gyrus

Postcentral gyrus (lat. gyrus postcentralis) is a section of the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The paths of superficial and deep sensitivity end in the postcentral gyrus.

The postcentral gyrus is located in the parietal lobe, behind the central sulcus. Its boundaries are:

anteriorly - central groove

posterior - postcentral sulcus

medial - longitudinal fissure of the brain

· laterally - lateral groove

Consider the convolution function:

The afferent pathways of superficial and deep sensitivity end in the postcentral gyrus. In this case, closer to the longitudinal fissure of the brain are located the sections that receive information from the lower extremities and lower parts of the torso, and the fields of the upper parts of the body and head are projected lowest at the lateral sulcus. This pattern was noted by the Canadian neurosurgeon Penfield, and the image he obtained is called the “sensitive homunculus.”

Rice. 2. Penfield's Sensitive Homunculus

Semiotics of defeat:

When damaged, anesthesia or hypoesthesia of all types of sensitivity occurs in the corresponding (depending on the location of the lesion) parts of the body on the opposite side. When irritated, paresthesia occurs in areas of the body corresponding to the irritated zones of the cortex. Such paresthesias (sensitive attacks - epilepsy) can be the aura of a general epileptic attack.

5. Parietal lobe analyzers

In addition to the cortex, which forms the superficial layers of the telencephalon, accumulations of gray matter in the cerebral hemispheres are present in the form of individual nuclei, or nodes. These nodes are located in the thickness of the white matter, closer to the base of the brain. Clusters of gray matter are called basal (subcortical, central) nuclei, or nodes, due to their special position.

The nucleus is also the site of concentration of cortical nerve cells, representing the exact projection of all the constituent elements of the corresponding peripheral receptor. The kernel carries out analysis, synthesis and integration of functions.

Scattered elements can be located in close proximity to the nucleus or at a great distance from it. Analysis and synthesis take place in these elements.

Core of the cortical analyzer of general(temperature, pain, tactile) and proprioceptive sensitivity form neurons located in the cortex of the postcentral gyrus and superior parietal lobule. Sensory pathways leading to the cerebral cortex intersect either at the level of different segments of the spinal cord (pathways of pain, temperature sensitivity, touch and pressure), or at the level of the medulla oblongata - these are the pathways of proprioceptive sensitivity. As a result, the postcentral gyri of each hemisphere are connected to the opposite half of the body.

If this analyzer is damaged, general sensitivity is impaired, for example, loss of the sense of pain, or lack of a sense of temperature.

The core of the skin analyzer belongs to the general sensitivity analyzer - one of the particular types of sensitivity, which has the function of recognizing objects by touch (streognosia), located in the cortex of the superior parietal lobule. The cortical part of this analyzer is localized in the right hemisphere and is represented by the projection of the receptive fields of the left hand. Thus, the core of this analyzer for the right upper limb is located in the left hemisphere. Damage to the superficial layers of the cortex, i.e. damage to the analyzer, in this part of the brain is expressed in the loss of the function of recognizing objects by touch, but other types of general sensitivity are preserved with this lesion.

Motor analyzer core located in the motor cortex of the cerebral hemisphere, at the location of the precentral gyrus and paracentral lobule on the inner surface of the hemisphere.

The precentral gyrus and paracentral lobule are located on the medial surface of the hemisphere. In layer V (plate) of the cortex of the precentral gyrus, giant pyramidal neurons (Betz cells) lie. These cells, through processes, are connected with the subcortical nuclei, motor cells of the nuclei of the cranial and spinal nerves. In the upper parts of the precentral gyrus and in the paracentral lobule there are neurons, impulses from which go to the muscles of the lower parts of the trunk and limbs. In the lower part of the precentral gyrus there are motor centers that regulate the facial muscles. We can say that all parts of the body are projected in the precentral gyrus, as if upside down. The pyramidal tracts, starting from the giganopyramidal neurons, intersect either at the level of the brain stem (corticonuclear fibers), or at the border with the bulb (lateral corticospinal tract), or in segments of the spinal cord (anterior corticospinal tract). , the motor areas of each hemisphere are connected to the skeletal muscles of the opposite side of the body. The muscles of the limbs have an isolated connection with one of the hemispheres, and the muscles of the trunk, larynx and pharynx have connections with the motor areas of both hemispheres.

The analyzer nucleus, which is responsible for the functions of turning the head and eyes in the opposite direction, is located in the posterior parts of the middle frontal gyrus, in the so-called premotor zone. The rotation of the eyes and head is also regulated by the receipt of impulses from the retina of the eye into the field of the occipital lobe, and not only by proprioceptive impulses from the muscles of the eyeball. In the field of the occipital lobe there is the nucleus of the visual analyzer.

The nucleus of the motor analyzer is located in the inferior parietal lobule, in the supramarginal gyrus (deep layer of the cytoarchitectonic field). The functional significance of this core is the synthesis of all purposeful, complex, combined movements. This is an asymmetrical core. For right-handers it is located in the left hemisphere, and for left-handers it is located in the right hemisphere. The ability to coordinate complex and precise movements is acquired by a person throughout life as a result of practice and accumulation of experience. Purposeful movements are carried out as a result of the emergence of temporary connections between cells located in the precentral and supramarginal gyri.

If this analyzer is damaged, purposeful movements are impaired, as well as the ability to coordinate complex and precise movements.

Conclusion

The nervous system is the main control apparatus of the body, functioning as a highly complex cybernetic device. It continuously receives information encoded in the form of nerve impulses: through receptors internal organs, heart, blood vessels, muscles and joints - about the processes occurring in them and the state of the internal environment of the body (body temperature, sugar content, etc.), and through the senses, including skin receptors - about all the effects of external environment. External information for a person includes not only direct stimuli (light, sound, etc.), but also oral and written speech, the meaning of perceived words.

As a result of specific processing (analysis and synthesis) of incoming information in the brain centers, efferent impulses are transmitted from them to various organs, changing the vital functions of the body and its behavior. In other words, the nervous system regulates the work of all organs, coordinates the activities of different systems, adapting it to the constantly changing conditions in which the body finds itself.

Between the centers of the brain and spinal cord and the organs they regulate (between regulators and regulated objects) there is not only direct, but also feedback (reverse afferentation). From organs whose activity changes under the influence of efferent impulses sent by the centers, information about the nature of these changes comes back to the brain.

The human brain (its cortex) has achieved special development due to labor activity human and became the organ of thinking and speech. According to F. Engels’ definition, “first work, and then, along with it, articulate speech were the two main stimuli, under the influence of which the monkey’s brain gradually turned into the human brain, which, despite all its similarities with the monkey’s, far surpasses it in size and perfection.” Physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex form the basis of human mental activity.

This work is based on the analysis of information about the telencephalon.

IN test work The sulci, gyri and analyzers of the parietal lobe of the telencephalon were examined.

Based on this work, we can conclude that the telencephalon is the area where perception, evaluation and processing of sensory and motor impulses occur. This area which has great importance for a person, since it is responsible for certain and significant life processes.

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