Indian theater "Kathakali" - incomprehensible dances or understandable art? Theater of India What is the basis of Indian theater?

THEATER OF ASIAN COUNTRIES. Theaters in Asian countries are not alike. Each country has its own language, its own culture, its own national traditions. And yet, there is something in common that brings the theatrical art of these countries together.

The culture of India, China and Japan evolved over thousands of years, preserving the main features of the previous ones in subsequent stages. That is why theatrical art is called traditional, revealing in it even today features of an earlier time.

In India, China, Japan and other countries at the dawn of mankind, a number of similar ideas about the world around us and about man developed. Then Heaven, Earth and Man were perceived as a single whole, where the laws of the Cosmos dictated their conditions, which man sought to comprehend and follow. Following these laws, theatrical art was formed. To embrace the immensity, to demonstrate the unity, the completeness of the world, is not an easy task. She required a special system expressive means, which was based on the principle of symbolization. The stage gesture, musical accompaniment, stage space, makeup and decor of the stage costume were symbolic. Unity was also expressed by a special form of theater - musical drama, which combined speech, singing and dance. This synthesis formed the stylistic device of the grotesque, subordinating stage movement, dance, and manner of singing and speech.

A special role was played by the system of religious views, especially Buddhism, which came from India first to China and then to Japan, enriching Chinese and Japanese literature and poetry, and, of course, drama. Buddhism influenced the style of symbolic gesture, expanding its semantic palette.

Origin theatrical arts India, China and Japan are closely associated with religious ritual, which influenced the formation of the theatrical canon. He stipulated strict rules stage art and actor's skill, requiring the performer to master all types of acting techniques.

Indian theater

Early evidence of the emergence of theatrical art was a bronze figurine of a dancing girl, found during excavations in the city of Mohenjo-Daro in the 3rd millennium BC. It was ritual dance that became the core around which Indian classical theater was formed. The model for the dancer was the image of the dancing Shiva, in whose dance the creative and destructive energy of the Universe was manifested.

IN Ancient India theatrical performances are part of a holiday dedicated to gods, for example, the thunder god Indra. A “banner” was erected in his honor, which symbolized a tree brought from the forest. After the ceremony, he was drowned in the river to give strength to the earth and water. The festival was attended by musicians, magicians, wrestlers, tightrope walkers, and funnymen, who were called “ nata" Later, this was the name given to professional actors, mention of whom has been found in Indian literature since the second half of the 1st millennium BC.

Long before new era In India, a folk theater developed, which is still popular today. One of the most common forms of such theater in northern India is music and dance drama ( Leela– translated from Sanskrit as “game”). According to Hindus, all actions of God are a game. At the core lil two Indian epics were written Mahabharata And Ramayana, consisting of collections of myths about the deeds of powerful gods, their struggle against evil demons. Next to God Rama is always his assistant - the monkey king Hanuman. Ethnic cloth Mahabharata tells about the struggle of two warring clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The struggle lasts until the god Krishna intervenes on the side of the offended, ending the enmity with the victory of justice. Performers perform in colorful costumes and masks. The action takes place without scenery. Ramalila and Krishnalila are popular in India even in the modern period.

In the south of the country, another form of mystery theater developed, associated with the art of temple storytellers - Chakiars. They recited verses in Sanskrit and then explained the text in the local language. The narrator used facial expressions and gestures. Later he was replaced by an actor, accompanying the recitation with dancing. The performance was called kutiyattam(Sanskrit “collective dance”).

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. a classic arose Indian theater. Its heyday was between the 1st and 9th centuries, when famous works of Sanskrit drama were created. The most famous playwrights are Bhasa, Kalidasa, Shudraka. The dates of their lives are approximate; the information of researchers sometimes differs for centuries. Of the thirteen works of Bhasa (2nd or 3rd centuries), the best are considered Vasavadata appeared in a dream- a play about the love of a king for his wife Vasavadata.

Authorship of the famous Clay cart(presumably 4th century) attributed to King Shudraka. The play was performed on the stages of many theaters around the world even in the 20th century. The play tells the story of the love of an actress-courtesan for the Brahmin Charudatta, a man belonging to the highest caste and also married. This plot went beyond the traditional. After many trials, the lovers were reunited.

The pinnacle of dramaturgy of Ancient India - drama Shakuntala Kalidasa (in some sources Sakuntala). The plot of the play about Shakuntala's loyalty and love for King Dushyanta came from Mahabharata, but was expanded upon by Kalidasa to make the storyline more dramatic. The performance has been preserved not only in modern theaters India, but also went around the stages of theaters around the world: it was staged in Berlin; in 1914 in the chamber theater of A. Tairov; in 1957 - in Beijing.

A special form of Indian theater is classical dance, which includes speech and sometimes singing. It was through dance that God Shiva created the world. One of the temples has a famous image of dancing Shiva. The columns depict 108 of his dancing poses, which are mentioned in the theatrical treatise Natyashastra.

One of the most ancient styles - bharat natya reached us thanks devasi – temple dancers who dedicated their lives to the deity. Over time, dance became a means of entertainment for the feudal aristocracy and the name “devasi” became synonymous with courtesan. The dance was a combination nritya(dance-story) and snritta(dance in pure form). Then an interlude was performed ( paddam), in which the dancer conveys with gestures the content of a song performed in Sanskrit. The semantic polyphony of the interlude was born from the singer’s repetition of the same line, to which he gave different interpretations, and from the dancer’s various interpretations of the same text.

BHARAT NATYA – classical dance South India

ODISSI - classical dance of eastern India

In the 15th century A classical dance style is emerging in North India Kathak. By that time, a state had emerged in which the Muslim conquerors had assimilated, giving impetus to the fusion of Muslim and Hindu art kathak was the result of the fusion of two cultures. The dance was performed in Persian costumes, but was a continuation of the legends about the love of Vadha and Krishna. Unlike bharat natyam, where the movements of the legs are synchronized with the movements of the arms and eyes, kathak built on improvisation. It is characterized by skillful foot movements, variety and complexity of rhythms. To test the dancer's skill, the drummer masks the main rhythm from time to time. In turn, the dancer strives to change her rhythm, trying to throw off the rhythm of the drummer. The play of rhythms ends with the general agreement of dance and rhythmic accompaniment, which is always accompanied by the delight of the audience.

MANIPURI - classical dance of North-East India

In the 17th century Theater is born in South India Kathakali. A pantomime dance drama about gods and demons, their love and hate. The performance is given either in the temple courtyard or under open air. Its audience is the peasants of the surrounding villages, who leave their daily worries and affairs as soon as they hear the sound of the drum. The theatrical performance is given against the black background of the night. Characters in bright makeup - green, red and black - appear from the darkness and disappear into the darkness. Make-up and its drawing have symbolic meaning, well known to the viewer.

CLASSICAL DANCE OF SOUTH INDIAN

Characters kathakali are divided into seven types: paccha– noble heroes; catty – arrogant and arrogant; redbeards- villains and ambitious people; white-bearded, most often these are advisers to the monkey king Hanuman - a noble and heroic image; blackbeards– forest people and hunters; kari – evil giantesses and female demons; minukku – sages, hermits, brahmins and women.

KATHAKALI CHARACTER – Monkey King Hanuman

Mastery kathakali learned from childhood under the guidance of a guru. The actor learns to understand the inner essence of what he is portraying, be it a person, a flower or a bird.

As for theatrical theory, the first Sanskrit treatise on theater was the work of the ancient sage Bharata Natyashastra (Treatise on the Art of the Actor). Scientists date the appearance of the treatise to the 3rd–4th centuries. Until now, the rules established in this book remain the law for Indian actors of all generations.

According to the treatise, there are four main means of expression: angika,mudra,Wachika,aharya.Angika – a language of conventional gestures of the hands, fingers, lips, neck and feet. Thirteen movements of the head are prescribed, seven movements for the eyebrows, thirty-six for the eyes; six for the nose, six for the cheeks, seven for the chin, thirty-two for the legs. Various leg positions and various gaits are provided - a stately gait, mincing or weaving, etc. Mudra - a gesture that has symbolic meaning. There are twenty-four basic gestures, each of which has over thirty different meanings. . Wachika– diction, intonation and pace of speech that create a certain mood. Aharya – canonized color and details of costume and makeup. For the gods and heavenly maidens - orange makeup, for the sun and Brahma - golden, for the Himalayas and the Ganges - white. Demons and dwarfs wear horns - deer, ram or buffalo. People's makeup depends on their social status and caste. Representatives upper castes- Brahmins and Kshatriyas have red makeup, Sudras have dark blue, kings have pale pink, and hermits have purple.

MUDRA - a gesture with symbolic meaning

Theatrical component sattvika- these are mental states conveyed by the actor (bhava), and the mood of the audience after what they saw on stage ( race). An actor must get used to the feelings of his character and be able to convey the subtlest experiences, for which he must master the acting technique. The ability to shed a tear, to show how the skin of the face tightens from the cold, how a shiver runs through the whole body from fear, i.e. masterful acting technique can evoke a certain mood in the viewer. The whole aesthetic concept of Indian performing arts based on teaching bhava And race. Literally, the word "rasa" means taste or taste, i.e. the mood that remains with the audience after the performance. Race There are nine kinds: erotic, comic, sad, angry, heroic, terrifying, disgusting, amazing, soothing. Each race indicated by a specific color: in order - transparent greenish, white, ash gray, red, light orange, black, blue, yellow. Nine race match nine bhava, which in turn can be stable or transient.

Natyashastra written in a difficult-to-read archaic form and has been accompanied by many commentaries over the centuries.

In the second half of the 19th century. A new dramaturgy and a new dramatic theater are emerging in India. The first attempts to create a new dramaturgy belonged to the Bengali playwrights Dinobondhu Mitro, Modhushudon Dotto, Ramcharainou Tarkorotnu. Their works were distinguished by their social depth and anti-British orientation. At the same time, theater groups appeared in other provinces of the country. The formation of Hindi drama is associated with the name of Bharatendu Harishchandra, whose work combined the traditions of national and Western European drama.

The ideas of the national liberation struggle and the demand for independence are reflected in the works of S. Govindas ( Path of Service, Why suffer? and etc.). In the 1940s theatrical life countries has become significantly more active. The Association of People's Theaters of India was created, whose activities had a significant impact on the development of theatrical culture in the country. After the establishment of independence in 1947, conditions were created in India for the development of both traditional forms of theatrical art and dramatic theater. The Indian Academy of Music and Drama has been established, which carries out scientific work in the field of theatrical art. The best works of world drama are staged in Indian theaters, including Shakespeare, Ibsen, Moliere, Turgenev, Gorky, and Chekhov.

Existence of drama in India as a separate type art lasted relatively short. But for this a short time Indian theater has established itself as the brightest, most colorful and colorful representative of the performing arts.

There are several theories about the emergence of drama in this extraordinary country. The first talks about the borrowing of theatrical traditions from ancient Greek culture. The second theory suggests that Indian drama originated in its own society as a result of the development and transformation of ancient sacraments and rituals. But none of these theories has reliable evidence. Therefore, art historians promote their assumption of the emergence of theatrical art, which is based on the possibility of the emergence of theater from a combination of several spectacular views. For example, an impromptu ceremonial performance in honor of the god Indra with a cult and traditional character, as well as a cult mystery, which was based on the texts of the Vedas. All productions were distinguished by splendor and unsurpassed beauty of the spectacle. Such celebrations were accompanied by performances by tightrope walkers, musicians and actors performing funny skits.

Classification of Indian theater

IN Indian culture There is a division of theater into several types:

• People's. This type of performing art had storyline, which was based on epic and Indian mythology. The acting profession in India was not respected. This is due to the fact that the artist portrayed the gods in a funny and obscene form. Actors were humiliated and considered the lower classes of society. But to gain mastery in this profession, you had to be quite educated person;
• Courtier. Performances were held in the courtyards of the nobility for entertainment purposes.

Indian theater groups included both men and women. They constantly wandered from city to city, giving performances to the people.

Main elements theatrical productions in India there was dance and music. All actions of the performance participants were subordinated to the sounds of music. Dance is the basis of all Indian theater. It owes its origin to ritual dances, which, after development and improvement, became exactly what we see today.

Particularly popular in India national theater Kathakali, which originated in the southern side of this country. Kathakali is based on religious ritual, and instrumental music, facial expressions and gestures are just an addition. This genre of theatrical art has several features. Firstly, it always starts at sunset, and secondly, it lasts at least six hours.

Not a single one cultural country can't be imagined without theatre. And India is no exception. Therefore, when booking hotels in India, do not forget that in all Indian major cities You can go to a theater performance. Moreover, the canons and style of Indian theater are very different from domestic dramas and comedies, and therefore no less interesting and even brilliant.

Theater came to India from Ancient Greece. Although many specialists this thesis are disputed, however, many features of Indian theater were inherent Greek tragedies and comedies.

However, like in any other country, in India there were talented people, who began to independently prepare scripts for Indian works. At the same time, local traditions and customs were put on a Greek basis.

At the dawn of the theater, only local rulers and very rich people could afford such luxury. Therefore, their servants became the first actors. With the spread of theater, professional actors also appeared.

As for Indian plays, they are quite diverse, although many of the rules for them remained common. The volume of the works was very different. Among Indian dramas you can find both small sketches and scenes lasting a few minutes, and large-scale works whose actions last for whole days.

Most Indian play directors and writers followed clear rules. There are several of them. First of all, regardless of the idea and plot, violence was not allowed on the stages. In Ancient India there was enough of it even without theater, so transferring scenes of cruelty to theatrical stage was not accepted.

The second rule, which was strictly observed, concerned the ending of the work. Therefore, you should not think that the happy ending of a play or film is an invention of Hollywood. It was known and used in ancient India several centuries BC. Therefore all Indian plays, both ancient and modern, strictly follow this rule. The plot may be tragic and even heartbreaking, but in the end everything will end well.

A special issue is the arrangement of the theater. Much attention was paid to this part of the theatrical performance. Costumes for the heroes were carefully selected. The most expensive material was used for them, and the decorations cost big money. Although the theatrical props were not the property of the actors.

The rules for staging Indian plays also applied to stage equipment. There were no screens or curtains between the audience and the actors. Therefore, when the actors entered the stage, they immediately caught the eye of the audience. There were also few decorations in Indian theater. And the abundance of props was replaced by increased gestures, facial expressions and dancing.

Interestingly, Indian actors They said practically nothing. All actions were expressed through gestures and dance. And the public could guess what was happening only by understanding the special symbols that were expressed by gestures.

It is advisable to see Indian theater with your own eyes. This is a very interesting and fascinating spectacle.

Even in the Vedic period. In India, theatrical performances were performed by the sky. At the beginning of our era, the first small theater premises appeared in the country. They had no scenery, theatrical props were extremely poor, they were replaced by other artistic conventions: a certain gait, facial expressions, gesticulation, etc.

Much attention was paid to the musical design of the performances. However, unlike modern Indian performances, which, according to European theatergoers, are oversaturated with singing, in ancient Indian monologues and dialogues the actors recited or chanted, but did not sing. A notable feature of ancient Indian theater was. His penchant for melodrama and pathos is inherent in the current theatrical art of the country. Tragic subjects were not allowed on stage for the reasons that there is plenty of tragedy in real life.

The theater was extremely popular. Ancient. India, especially among the intelligentsia, however, the profession of an artist did not belong to the prestigious, it was considered “mean”, the artists themselves were Shudras

The ancient Indians said: “He who knows neither music, nor literature, nor other arts is not a man, but a beast, although he has neither a tail nor horns.” Music played in their lives important role. M. Art professional musicians and the dancers were amused by the Rajahs. And nobles, and in Indian myths, did not shy away from this entertainment and the gods, who were served by heavenly music and dancers.

On the development of ancient Indian musical culture the treatise tells. Natyashastra, probably composed in the first centuries AD. It testifies that at that time the country already had a well-developed music system, which later formed the basis of Indian “classical” musicians.

The Indian melody strikes the European ear with its exoticism. There are many semitones and even quartertones in the Indian scale. Indian melodies are classified by horns - a specific sequence of five or more tones that form the basis of the melody. Each para has its own emotional load, symbolizing joy, fun, love, peace, fear, etc. There are “morning”, “day”, “evening” ragas, etc. *. Old Indian melodies lack a harmonic basis and are based on rhythm percussion instruments. An important feature of ancient Indian music is also that the musician in the family is always an improviser. He performs a key musical phrase, and then endlessly varies it, each time in a new way, so that each performance of the same melody is unique.

The ancient Indians created a series musical instruments, the most common of which was similar to the ancient Egyptian lyre of wine. The musicians also played the flute, other reed and percussion instruments

Developed in. Ancient. India also has the art of vocals. The singing was most often a variation of a simple melody, which was reduced literally to a single musical phrase

The Indian art of dance has changed little over the centuries. In ancient dances, the main role was also played by musical rhythm and gestures, and almost every part of the dancer’s body participated in the dance. A small movement of the little finger or eyebrow told the initiate into the secrets of this art the whole story of everything that is striking in Indian dance: the position of the dancer’s hands is wise. With just a complex code of positions of his hands and fingers, he conveyed a wide range of emotions, excitedly talked about various events in the life of gods, people, and Zhivoarins.

The art of Indian dance is very complex. Mastering it required years of hard work. Therefore in. Ancient. In India, dancing has always been performed by professionals. There is a social taboo on this type of entertainment in ch. Libin centuries, it seems, did not exist (they were only preserved by the priesthood).

One of the most powerful means of disseminating religious ideas among the people is. Due to its direct connection with the cult, Indian folk theater allows us to study, through living examples, those principles dramatic art, which in modern European theater, and even in the classical court drama of India itself, have disappeared under literary layers.
The Indian word for dramatic performance is "nataka" (meaning " ". And indeed, the starting point for the development of drama is the cult dance. Another characteristic feature primitive theater is the mask. For primitive man putting on a mask has magical meaning: The wearer of the mask becomes temporarily the receptacle for the spirit of the personality he represents. This is the beginning of dramatic illusion.

Malabar Theater

The main idea of ​​Indian is fight good forces with world evil - finds vivid expression in the peculiar theatrical performances of the Malabar coast, known as "kata-", i.e. epic dances. The plots of these performances are taken from Indian mythology, mainly from the Puranas, from the epic, as well as from fiction. The usual motive is as follows. (in most cases, Indra or one of the incarnations, or, or Rama) or a king of divine origin loves a heavenly or earthly beauty. She either immediately, or after some suffering on the part of the hero, reciprocates his feelings, and the lovers enjoy complete happiness. But the forces of darkness, giants “asuras” hostile to the gods and insidious demons do not sleep. They envy the happiness of those who love and try to disrupt it. They kidnap or try to kidnap the beauty. The hero protects her or frees her from the captivity of evil forces, destroys a myriad of demons or “asuras” and lives out his days with his beloved in complete bliss. Actors in most cases make up their faces with very complex and thick makeup, which expresses the character of this type. The god or hero has a green face framed by a thick layer of white rice paste. The face of the giants, who represent the overthrown gods, is partially covered with a thick layer of green rice paste, from under which the red color shines through. They have round green bumps on their forehead and nose. Demons, as bloodthirsty creatures, have a predominantly red complexion; female demons have a face painted black, the color of death and night. Heavenly and earthly beauties and saints do not wear makeup and only use ordinary Indian cosmetics - antimony, powder, etc.
The actors' costumes are lush and strictly defined. Its mandatory components are the following: headdress (“kritam”) of equal shapes depending on the role; large earlobe earrings and small earrings called “ear flower”, which are inserted above the ear; headbands worn on the forehead under the headdress; necklaces, gilded wood, or beads, or dried fruits; bib; belt with chains hanging down; apron made of red cloth; bracelets and wrists and white and red scarves hanging around the neck. These are worn on a skirt, usually made of blue material, and on a jacket, which is red for the gods, shaggy and red for the asuras, shaggy and red for the demons. white, for female demons it is blue and for beauties it is colorful.

The actors enter the stage, which forms a small square with bamboo poles driven into the four corners and covered with a light temporary canopy of coconut leaves. The stage is separated from the audience by a colorful curtain, held by two boys by the wrists.
The actors accompany the words of the epic sung behind the stage with strictly defined movements of their hands and. Each hand position corresponds to a concept. Thus, the figure of a heavenly beauty holds her hands in a position that corresponds to the word “guilt” ( stringed instrument). The demon woman expresses the idea of ​​contemplation by the position of her hands: one hand is raised to the sky, where contemplation rushes, and the other hand, in front of the stomach, draws a calm position that should be taken while delving into the eternal. The demon holds his hands in a position that conveys the effect of a sacrifice or, more precisely, a libation of ghee into a sacrificial offering. The raised hand of a giant in a red shaggy jacket draws an elephant with its trunk raised to pluck leaves. Right hand The figure representing the god is at right angles to the left hand, like the rearing front of the body of a snake, which is why this position of the hands is called "snake". The meaning of these gestures is further clarified by the fact that the fingers must be in a rather artificial and peculiar position. Thus, even if the hands are in approximately the same position when expressing two various concepts, then the difference in the position of the fingers eliminates any doubt.

The stage has no backstage. There are few props: swords, maces, shields for fight scenes, separate wooden masks to characterize subordinate roles. The rhythm of the epics, which often changes during the same performance, is beaten on a drum. Lighting and lighting effects are achieved through large bronze lamps in which coconut oil burns. These performances are usually staged at temples during major temple festivals. The actors are exclusively male in the highest non-Brahmin castes (Nambiars and Nayars).

Bengal Puppet Theater

In the foreground of the personifications of the struggle between good and evil created by Indian creativity is Rama, the hero of the most widespread and beloved epic of the Ramayana, the incarnation of the god Vishnu. This epic, which is attributed by tradition to the great poet Valmiki and which appeared, in all likelihood, several hundred years BC, was and is of great importance both for Indian literature and for education moral ideals people. It has been translated into all major languages modern India; it is read, sung and studied; in dramatic adaptation it is presented literally in all corners of vast India and Indonesia. The images of this epic - the hero Rama, his formidable enemy, the ten-headed Ravana, the devoted and brave monkey leader Hanuman - and their exploits constitute favorite motifs for painting and. Along with figures of one of the types folk theater- Bengali puppet theater - examples of Indian visual arts, conveying in their totality the approximate content of the great epic.

This content is briefly as follows. In the city of Ayodhya (modern Oudh) lived King Dasharatha from the famous Raghu dynasty. He had four sons from different wives: Rama, Lakshmana, Shatrughna and Bharata. Rama, his eldest son, was married to Sita. Due to his extreme old age, Dasharatha decided, with the consent of his subjects, to appoint Rama as co-ruler of the state. But Bharata's mother, his youngest son Having learned about this, she took advantage of Dasharatha’s rash promise, which he gave her immediately after the wedding, and demanded that her son be appointed co-ruler instead of Rama and that the latter be expelled from the state for fourteen years. This demand, presented at the very moment of Rama's anointing as king, was fulfilled by Dasharatha at the insistence of Rama himself, to whom the honor of his father was more valuable than royal honors. Sita and Lakshmana accompanied Rama into exile, but old Dasaratha did not survive the separation and disappointment and soon died. Rama, with his brother and wife, went to the dense forests in the south, where he led the hermit and protected the hermits from the attacks of countless demons. He cut off the nose of one demon who wanted to destroy him and for this purpose took the form of a beautiful woman. This demon in this form appeared before the king of demons Ravana, the formidable ruler of the island of Lanka (Ceylon), inhabited by countless evil spirits. Ravana became very angry and, having learned about Sita's beauty, decided to kidnap her and take revenge on Rama. Taking the pious form of a hermit, he crept up on Sita at the moment when Rama was chasing the golden-fleece deer created by the magic of Ravana. Sita let him in, suspecting nothing, and he kidnapped her. On the way, the old mighty bird Jatayu tried to free Sita and bravely attacked the formidable demon. She paid with her life for her courage. But before she died, she managed to tell Rama and Lakshmana who kidnapped Sita. They immediately set off in pursuit. On the way south they came to the kingdom of the monkeys (in all likelihood this is a semi-contemptuous name for the Dravidian tribes). There the monkey king and his brother Sugriva fought for power and for the possession of the beautiful Tara. Rama intervened in this fight and killed Bali with his arrow. Sugriva, who married Tara, became a loyal ally of Rama, and an army of monkeys under the command of Hanuman went with Rama against Ravana. When they reached the shore of the strait separating Ceylon from south india, built a bridge from rocks torn from the mountains (modern Adam's Bridge). Ravana's brother, Vibhishana, who foresaw the fall of Ravana's power, surrendered to Rama, who kindly received him and promised him a kingdom. IN terrible battle between Rama's army and the demons, Ravana's son was first killed, and, in the end, Ravana fell from the arrow of Rama himself. Lanka was taken, Sita was freed, and the hero returned to his homeland, where he was enthusiastically received by the citizens of Ayodhya.

The figures depicting the heroes of the Ramayana are each served by two people, and if they are very heavy, like the figure of Ravana, even a large number. Behind the curtain, one person holds the figure by a bamboo stick, with the help of which the head rotates, another, using threads, forces the figure to make the appropriate gestures.

A. M. Mervart 1927